SIXTINE  ROME 


Digitized  by 

the  Internet 

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in  2014 

https://archive.org/details/sixtineromeOOorba 


SIXTINE  ROME 


BY 

J.  A.  F.  ORBAAN  D.Ph. 


WITH  33  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 

THE   BAKER  AND  TAYLOR 
COMPANY 

191 1 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
Porta  Furba  .... 

CHAPTER  II 
The  Sixtine  Chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore 

CHAPTER  III 
The  Vatican  Library  .  . 

CHAPTER  IV 

DOMENICO  FONTANA 

CHAPTER  V 
The  Destruction  of  the  Septizonium 


Index 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


SlXTUS  V  RECEIVING  Fontana         .  .       .  Frontispiece 

(From  a  painting  in  the  Vatican  Library) 

FACING  PACK 

Roma         .           .           ......  2 

Porta  Furba         .           .        .        ....  12 

Fountain  of  the  Acqua  Felice  .        ....  23 

Grottammare         .           .        .        ....  37 

The  Villa  of  Cardinal  Montalto  39 

Casale  di  Pio  Quinto        .        .        ....  41 

Sixtus  V  visiting  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  ( Vatican  fresco)  43 

The  Burial  Procession  of  Pius  V  entering  Santa 

Maria  Maggiore  ( Vatican  fresco)         .      .      .      .  45 

Tomb  of  Pius  V                 .        .        ....  47 

Tomb  of  Sixtus  V  .           .        .        ....  51 

Rudiments  of  the  projected  Palazzo  di  Giustizia  .  69 

Sixtine  Map  of  Rome        .         .         ....  71 

The  Vatican  Library  barring  the  Courtyard  of 

Bramante          .           .         .         ....  79 

The  Vatican  Library  {built  by  Sixtus  V)  .      .      .      .  81 

The  Marriage  of   Margaret  of  Parma  {Fresco  in 

Caprarola)             .             .          .          ....  85 

The  Librarian  Platina  received  by  Sixtus  IV  .  89 

The  Possesso  of  Sixtus  V  {Vatican  fresco)      .      .      .  91 

The  Papal  Squadron  {Vatican  fresco)      ....  95 

Santa  Maria  Maggiore  (Lowering  of  the  Cradle-Chapel)  99 

View  of  the  Medici  Gardens      .         ....  105 

Piazza  Colonna  in  the  time  of  Sixtus  V  {Vatican 

fresco)     .            .            ......  109 


viii 


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SS.  Apostoli,  a  Corner-stone  in  Sixtus  V's  Life       .  125 

domenico  fontana  from  his  own  book      .      .  .133 

Fontana's  Competitors       .        .        ....  147 

A  Leaf  from  Fontana's  Book      .        ....  169 

Map  in  Caprarola,  showing  the  New  World     .      .  195 

The  Architect's  Tomb        .         .        ....  231 

The  Septizonium  Severi     .         .        ....  233 

Septizonium  with  Mediaeval  Elements  {after 

HeemskerKs  drawing)         .          .          ....  237 

The  Trophies  of  Marius  :   Original  Site  (f?o?n  a 

drawing  by  Bril)  .            .          .          ....  255 


Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius  before  its  restoration  263 
The  Vatican  in  1579  .        .        ....  276 


SIXTINE  ROME 


i 

PORTA  FURBA 

HOW  often  it  happens  that  a  cause  of  which 
one  is  hardly  conscious,  a  small  bit  of  mosaic 
or  a  print  accidentally  seen  in  the  window  of  an 
antiquarian,  gives  the  slight  impetus  which  starts 
the  desire  for  discovery.  A  name  appears  like  a 
luminous  sign,  not  merely  one  out  of  many  in  the 
dull,  tedious  list  of  the  guide-book,  but  as  some 
brilliant  visitor  suddenly  announced,  one  of  the 
bright  comets  which  occasionally  light  up  wide 
fields  of  civilisation. 

The  impulse  may  come  in  a  cosy  room  lined 
with  books,  a  lighted  lamp  on  the  table  among  a 
few  portfolios  full  of  engravings,  and  one  of  the 
superficial  Roman  wood-fires  ready  to  burn  in  the 
fireplace.  Outside,  the  "  Tramontana,"  the  vivid 
north  wind,  growing  calm  as  the  night  advances. 
The  heels  of  passers-by  as  they  hurry  along, 
wrapped  in  their  mantles,  sound  quick  and  loud 

B 


2 


SIXTINE  ROME 


on  the  white  pavement,  its  crystalline  specks 
glittering  in  the  moonlight. 

Why  is  the  night  so  peculiarly  full  of  charm, 
the  room  so  inviting  ?  and  why  are  the  books  so 
delightfully  attractive  ? 

Only  for  this  reason  :  one  of  the  many  Homes 
in  Rome  awaits  to  be  discovered.  Perhaps  it  has 
already  been  discovered  a  thousand  times,  or  it  may 
be  that  the  discovery  will  prove  only  a  weak  sup- 
position. That  is  all  the  same,  for  it  is  measured 
according  to  the  potentiality  of  the  mind  which 
conceives  it.  A  Shelley  will  make  his  Cenci ;  a 
Bulwer  a  Cola  Di  Rienzi,  and  inspiration  may  be 
given  to  one  who  writes  a  letter  home  about  his 
evening.  No  doubt  it  ends,  in  many  cases,  in  a 
dreamy  hour  in  an  armchair,  while  the  fire  burns 
low  and  the  sounds  outside  die  away,  until  the 
neighbouring  bells  solemnly  strike  midnight. 

Yet,  he  whose  silent  nights  have  known  the 
intimacy  of  the  Rome  of  the  past  will  carry  with 
him  through  life  its  beautiful  remembrance,  and 
be  for  ever  grateful  to  the  moment  of  his  inspira- 
tion. His  strongest  feeling  will  be  regret  for 
unsolved  enigmas  and  for  many  evenings  wasted 
which  might  have  been  spent,  not  in  dwelling  upon 
great  historical  questions  of  Roman  antiquity,  but 
upon  less  complicated  subjects,  which  strike  the 
fancy  with  an  invincible  curiosity,  create  an  atmos- 
phere of  mystery,  and  call  forth  a  very  powerful 
interest. 


R(  IMA. 


PORTA  FURBA 


3 


Imagine  a  huge,  lonely  mass  of  brick,  an 
interrogation  point  in  the  bareness  of  the  Cam- 
pagna ;  a  lonely  house,  a  tower,  .  .  .  but  those 
broken  relics  are  too  numerous.  In  their  wild 
and  fallen  state  they  seem  almost  to  return  to 
the  soil  from  which  they  grew ;  their  antiquity 
has  outlived  itself.  The  effect  is  the  opposite  of 
what  often  happens  with  a  wall  of  clouds,  or  a 
line  of  rocks ;  we  gaze  at  their  capricious  outlines 
in  the  distant  sky,  seeking  for  the  profile  of  some 
building.  On  the  contrary,  many  of  the  anti- 
quities of  the  Campagna  dissolve  before  our  eyes, 
and  become  one  with  the  landscape.  This  sub- 
merging of  the  past,  this  fading  away  of  beautiful 
scenery  into  the  floor  of  the  stage,  is  at  the 
extreme  limit  of  our  understanding.  It  is  too 
difficult  to  distinguish  an  ancient  building  from 
an  occasional  heap  of  stones.  Even  against  our 
wish  the  eye  grows  tired  and  the  fancy  wanders 
from  those  frontier  marks  between  History  and 
Nature. 

The  Roman  evening  opens  with  very  different 
reminiscences  of  the  day,  reminiscences  of  an 
extinguished  life  that  we  can  still  grasp  and  will 
at  least  try  to  reconstruct.  The  interrogation 
marks  are  soon  arranged  in  their  order. 

There  is  no  better  method  to  ensure  an  evening 
of  fruitful  investigation  than  to  take  a  walk  after 
sunset  in  Old  Rome,  between  the  Corso  and  the 
Tiber.    There  is  no  danger  at  all,  except  perhaps 


4 


SIXTINE  ROME 


in  a  few  little  streets,  which  announce  themselves 
sufficiently  as  the  Suburra  of  modern  Rome. 
In  a  few  minutes  you  will  be  lost — that  is  ab- 
solutely certain.  1  envy  you  that  privilege.  It 
is  almost  prosaic  to  know  one's  way  round  every 
corner  of  the  ancient  city.  In  your  wanderings, 
you  will  happen  on  some  square  or  bridge  which 
you  know,  and  return  thence  with  a  provision 
of  questions. 

The  itinerary  has  been  a  strange  one.  Repro- 
duced on  the  map,  it  would  show  a  fantastic  line 
with  many  angles,  circles,  and  spirals  ;  and  yet 
the  wanderer,  puzzled  by  the  intricate  network  of 
streets  two  yards  wide,  has  not  twice  observed  the 
same  expression  on  apparently  the  same  Madonna. 
He  remembers  that  he  passed  many  times  the 
same  kind  of  doorway,  but  is  uncertain  as  to 
whether  he  did  not  retrace  his  own  footsteps. 
Probably  it  was  a  different  place  where  the 
identical  design  was  repeated.  The  doorway  is 
very  Roman,  being  composed  merely  of  blocks, 
roughly  carved  in  two  parallel  lines,  closing  above 
in  the  half-circle  of  an  arch.  Once  his  attention 
has  been  drawn  to  ornamentation  of  this  kind,  he 
finds  such  doors  innumerable  ;  as  also  windows 
closed  outside  with  strong  iron  bars  curving 
towards  the  summit,  and  marble  benches  attached 
to  the  basement  of  ancient  palaces.  The  next 
house  again  has  pillars  of  granite  or  marble  with 
Ionian  capitals  partly  embedded  in  the  wall  and 


PORTA  FURBA 


5 


in  the  ground.  They  really  carry  the  upper  story 
of  the  building.  But  why  are  they  walled  inside  ? 
Were  they  not  strong  enough  to  bear  the  light 
weight  above  them?  Was  it  necessary  to  plant 
them  deep  in  the  ground  ?  Other  antiquities  will 
arouse  your  interest  when  looking  into  some 
corridor  or  courtyard.  An  irregular  little  museum 
of  marble  fragments,  with  inscriptions  or  bas- 
reliefs,  is  attached  with  iron  clasps,  or  cemented  in 
the  whitewashed  wall  of  more  than  one  house,  in- 
differently passed  by.  In  one  place,  the  light 
of  a  lantern  reaches  high  enough  to  show,  on  a 
facade,  blurred  mythical  scenes,  painted  in  brown, 
black,  white,  and  yellow,  apparently  the  remnants 
of  gilding.  You  remember  also  to  have  passed 
several  inviting,  shop-like  offices,  with  walls  of 
books  bound  in  old  parchment.  A  lamp  draws 
a  narrow  cone  under  the  green  shade  and  lights 
up  an  old  man's  head  and  the  paper  which  he  is 
covering  with  neat  calligraphy.  In  a  line  along 
the  wall,  dignified,  pensive  people  are  sitting  in 
old-fashioned  chairs,  addressed  by  another  man  of 
the  same  type  as  the  writer,  but  more  refined  and 
with  authority  in  his  gestures.  The  proprietor  is 
somewhat  of  a  scientific  dealer.  The  mental 
attitude  of  the  learned  customers,  standing  and 
sitting  around  in  the  little  store,  is  shown  by  the 
eager  interest  and  sincere  love  with  which  they 
handle  the  dusty  books. 

And  there  is  still    another  mystifying  shop 


6 


SIXTINE  ROME 


presenting  the  peculiarities  of  a  pharmacy — pecu- 
liarities you  must  notice  as  being  very  Italian  and 
very  aesthetic.  In  some  chemists'  shops  can  be 
seen  sets  of  Majolica  jars  of  great  artistic  value. 
They  have  thus  stood  in  ordinary  use  for  centuries, 
while  their  contemporaries  adorn  the  cabinet  of 
some  collector  of  antiquities.  In  a  collection,  their 
shortened  Latin  inscription  takes  the  air  of  a 
magic  formula ;  here  they  only  assist  in  guiding 
the  hand  of  the  pharmacist  in  making  balms  and 
drugs  of  centenary  reputation  and  effective  healing 
power  for  past  and  present  generations. 

This  does  not  account  for  the  little  company  of 
grave  gentlemen,  who  watch  with  a  certain  in- 
difference the  handling  of  these  costly  ceramics. 

If  they  were  antiquarians  their  hearts  would 
tremble,  but  their  appearance  shows  no  sign  of 
inward  tremor. 

You  will  find  no  such  group  in  a  neighbouring 
store  of  articles  of  a  similar  kind.  Over  the  door 
is  written  "  Semplicista."  There  "  semplicia " 
(medical  herbs)  are  sold,  whereas  the  pharmacist 
deals  out  chemical  substances  or  more  specially 
prepared  herbs  and  minerals.  Painted  wooden 
boxes  of  the  time  of  Dr.  Johnson  contain  these 
remedies.  The  owner  of  this  stock  of  health  is 
alone. 

A  grill-room,  offering  a  large  view  to  the  street, 
recalls  the  Middle  Ages.  Under  the  spacious 
chimney  whole  rows  of  chickens  and  many  half- 


PORTA  FURBA 


7 


sheep  are  revolving  slowly  over  a  glowing  fire.  A 
complicated  engine,  which  would  already  in  the 
XVIth  century  have  excited  the  admiration  of 
Montaigne,  the  first  of  modern  tourists,  sets  this 
gastronomical  array  in  motion.  When  the  coal 
is  brought  in,  the  primitive  baskets  of  plaited  laths 
in  which  it  is  carried  will  seem  familiar  to  many 
.  .  .  the  frescoes  of  Giotto  in  Santa  Croce  in 
Florence  will  come  to  your  memory.  This  is 
Italy.  But  the  mediaeval  coal-basket  is  very  recent 
compared  to  the  scales  still  used  in  ordinary 
Roman  stores,  of  which  you  can  find  the  model  in 
a  glass  case  in  the  Capitoline  Museum,  and  the 
potteries  which  trace  perhaps  much  farther  back 
than  classical  Roman  times,  and  whose  models  are 
in  common  use  at  the  present  day. 

A  view  of  a  courtyard  remains  in  one's  mind. 
Just  a  flickering  light  from  a  few  candles,  reflected 
on  carriage-panels  undergoing  the  operation  of 
cleaning  after  a  dusty  country  drive.  A  Cardinal's 
evening  by  the  Tiber  perhaps. 

Many  pleasant  questions  trouble  the  stranger, 
only  to  remain  unanswered.  He  finds  in  the 
usual  antique  models  and  living  tradition  certain 
explanations  .  .  .  but  the  attractive  side  remains 
unsolved. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  Roman  doorway,  with 
its  rough  stone  blocks.  It  is  not  difficult  to  find 
its  model.  The  Coliseum  itself  presents  the  arch 
closed  with  the  keystone.     A  portfolio  of  old 


8 


SIXTINE  ROME 


prints  demonstrates  clearly  that  this  typical  door- 
way belonged  to  times  before  carriages  were  in  use, 
or,  later  on,  to  houses  which  did  not  possess 
that  luxury.  The  introduction  of  vehicles  in  the 
second  half  of  the  XVIth  century  altered  the 
"portone,"  the  gateway  of  palaces.  They  might 
be  small  and  narrow  when  everybody  rode  on 
horseback  .  .  .  even  Popes  and  Cardinals,  as  is 
shown,  for  instance,  on  the  tombstone  of  Pope 
Hadrian  VI  in  Santa  Maria  dell'  Anima.  Later 
the  gateway  had  to  allow  for  the  entrance  of 
broad  carriages ;  its  opening  took  up  a  large  space 
in  the  facade  and  changed  its  whole  architectural 
plan.  Compare  the  narrow  entrance  of  the 
Palazzo  Massimo — (beginning  of  XVIth  century) 
— with  the  spacious  entrance  of  the  Palazzo  Doria 
—(end  of  XVIth  century). 

The  custom  of  guarding  ground-floor  windows 
with  a  covering  of  strong  twisted  iron  still  exists 
in  Rome.  New  houses  have  imitated  them,  with 
or  without  the  curved  effect,  in  order  to  look  out 
more  easily  from  the  prison-like  rooms.  In  former 
times  the  streets  of  Rome  were  not  lighted,  and 
the  worthy  citizens  had  to  carry  their  own 
lanterns ;  or  else  a  servant  lighted  them  on  their 
way  through  the  winding  streets  with  a  candle 
or  a  torch.  They  left  behind  them  impenetrable 
darkness  when  the  full  moon  did  not  sketch  in 
black  and  white  the  sharp  outlines  of  the  palaces. 
Houses  had  to  protect  themselves. 


PORTA  FURBA 


9 


Modern  buildings  also  occasionally  have  ancient 
fragments  of  inscriptions  and  bas-reliefs  walled 
in  the  corridor  and  courtyard.  The  origin  of  those 
little  private  museums  is  very  natural.  When 
digging  for  the  foundations,  some  marble  fragments 
were  found.  It  was  the  obvious  thing  to  use 
them  as  an  ornament  and  to  bring  them  from  their 
long  confinement  to  the  daylight,  on  the  very  spot 
where  they  once  stood  in  Imperial  or  perhaps 
Republican  grandeur.  Whenever  possible,  the 
owner  retains  one  of  the  statues  from  these 
excavations.  The  history  of  excavations  made 
with  the  purpose  of  finding  antiquities  shows  in 
every  period  how  grateful  we  should  be  to  the 
Italians  for  the  continuance  of  that  gentle,  in- 
telligent custom.  It  has  been  followed  on  a  large 
scale  by  the  famous  archaeologist  de  Rossi  when 
classifying  pagan  and  Christian  inscriptions  in  a 
corridor  of  the  Vatican,  and  Christian  inscrip- 
tions along  the  walls  of  the  first  floor  in  the 
courtyard  of  the  Palace  of  St.  John  in  Lateran. 
Antique  fragments  are  generally  used  in  and 
around  Rome  for  ordinary  building  material.  We 
deplore  that  abuse,  and  marvel  that  the  mason 
sometimes  took  the  trouble  to  turn  the  carved  side 
of  the  stone  to  the  exterior. 

The  tradition  of  bygone  centuries  lives  yet  in 
its  own  surroundings  in  parchment-bound  books. 
They  contain  the  history  of  a  great  number  of 
Roman  families,  often  dating  from  the  XVIth 


10 


SIXTINE  ROME 


century,  and  fill  the  notary's  office,  illumined  by 
the  green,  shaded  light.  Corresponding  archives 
of  daily  life  are  to  be  found  in  different  parish 
churches ;  three  or  four  centuries'  history  of  the 
citizens  of  Rome  is  kept  there,  with  all  the  details 
of  the  family,  its  growth  and  decay,  and  the  pass- 
ing of  its  possessions  from  one  hand  and  generation 
to  another. 

The  old  book  store  is  another  example  of  the 
continuous  past.  Its  contents  are  many  centuries 
old.  Its  works  are  still  consulted  by  lawyers  and 
theologians,  two  mighty  professions  which  have 
ruled  law  and  religion  by  giving  laws  to  religion 
and  making  a  religion  of  law. 

Just  before  the  Via  Appia  turns  sharply  down- 
wards, opposite  a  marble  plate  bearing  the  coat 
of  arms  of  the  Barberini  Pope,  Urbanus  VIII,  a 
pathway  to  the  left  leads  to  the  majestic  Porta 
Furba.  Or,  going  down  a  certain  distance  on  the 
Via  Appia,  the  road  leads  through  classic  ground 
and,  to  the  right,  a  mighty  mass  of  brick  marks 
the  direction  of  the  Via  Latina. 

The  whole  track  of  this  road  from  the  Porta 
Latina — now  walled  up  and  unused — is  marked 
by  other  ruins  of  the  same  origin.  The  line  of  the 
Via  Latina  crosses  on  the  map  the  line  of  the  Via 
Appia.  On  the  spot  insinuatingly  called  "  Cessati 
Spiriti "  (departed  spirits)  no  trace  of  pavement  is 
left.  The  Via  Latina  takes  possession  of  its  rights 
some  hundred  yards  farther.    A  small  section  of 


PORTA  FURBA 


11 


the  way  has  been  well  preserved,  with  beautiful 
brick  buildings  on  both  sides — the  former  tombs 
of  the  Via  Latina.  The  basement  of  an  ancient 
Christian  church,  Santo  Stefano,  completes  this 
corner  of  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome. 

Behind  Santo  Stefano,  enclosed  in  a  square  of 
walls  and  surrounded  by  luxurious  vegetation,  the 
Roman  Campagna  appears  framed,  at  the  basis, 
by  the  forms  of  an  aqueduct.  The  eye  follows 
instinctively  the  regular  succession  of  arches. 

Stretching  afar,  they  seemingly  sink  down  into 
the  ground  of  the  Campagna.  Close  to  the  city 
there  is  a  curious  twist  with  an  arch  and  a  square 
white  panel  above  it,  at  once  attracting  our  gaze  in 
the  monotonous  parade  of  arches.  There  is  some- 
thing enigmatical,  something  capricious  and 
whimsical  about  it,  like  the  sudden  change  in  the 
long-drawn  popular  songs  which  may  at  that 
moment  be  sounding  across  the  fields.  There  is 
something  surprising,  something  even  amusing  in 
that  serious,  severe  practical  work  of  patient 
architecture,  making  a  gate  of  one  of  its  hundred 
arches,  a  gate  which  is  not  the  gate  of  a  city  wall, 
but  really  only  a  wider  arch. 

This  Porta  Furba,  whose  name  has  never  been 
clearly  explained,  may  seem  at  a  distance  small 
and  unassuming,  but  gains  in  importance  as  one 
approaches  it.  It  seems  conscious  of  being  some- 
thing substantial  on  its  own  merits,  and  of  holding 
an  acceptable  position  between  a  real  gate,  a 


12 


SIXTINE  ROME 


master  in  a  city  wall,  and  an  arch,  which  is  only 
one  of  a  long  row  of  servants  in  an  aqueduct. 

The  whole  of  this  piece  of  architecture,  breaking 
through  the  regularity  of  the  serpentine  brick 
aqueduct,  is  harmonious.  Its  noble  lineaments  fit 
perfectly  in  the  scheme  of  the  entire  construction, 
the  marble  tablets  above  both  sides  of  the  arch  cor- 
respond exactly  with  the  opening  ;  and  the  height 
of  the  gate  itself,  with  its  protruding  summit  over 
the  aqueduct-line,  does  not  in  the  least  mar  the 
general  symmetry. 

Standing  before  Porta  Furba  one  easily  forgets 
that  it  is  only  a  part  of  an  aqueduct,  as  before  the 
Porta  Maggiore,  which  has  still  larger  inscriptions 
.  .  .  till  its  real  meaning  reveals  itself,  when  it 
appears  even  better  proportioned  to  the  enclosed 
panorama. 

The  triangle,  accepted  as  the  geometrical  for- 
mula of  aesthetics,  here  holds  in  the  deep  back- 
ground the  beauty  of  nature.  The  sacred  hills  of 
Latium  rise  in  a  symbolical  figure,  as  if  the  hand 
of  a  Divine  Artist  had  drawn  their  outlines  for  the 
rejoicing  of  the  Eternal  City.  They  are  a  triumph 
of  blue  colouring  in  every  gradation,  from  ultra- 
marine in  the  ravines,  through  a  process  of  purifi- 
cation, to  the  sublime  blue  of  the  human  eye. 
The  victory  of  blue  is  evident  when  compared 
to  the  Wedgwood  pale  blue  and  white  of  the 
more  remote  parts  of  the  background,  the  snow- 
covered  Sabina. 


Porta  Furba. 


i 


PORTA  FURBA  13 

We  cannot  remove  from  our  mind  the  illusion 
that  this  heavenly  prospect  in  all  its  details  has 
been  immortally  created.  It  is  with  an  effort  that 
we  realise  that  the  white  tracery  was  not  placed 
on  its  canvas  by  the  point  of  the  Master's  brush. 

A  moment  of  aesthetic  joy  awaits  us  on  the 
road  from  Porta  Furba  to  the  hills,  the  classical 
Via  Tusculana. 

As  we  measure  the  distance  with  the  old- 
fashioned  milestone,  the  distant  lines  seem  to 
move  forward  at  every  point.  Valleys  seem 
hollowed  out  of  each  side  of  the  central  range  of 
mountains,  separated  from  each  other  by  strong 
buttresses,  solidly  planted  in  the  Campagna. 

The  Italian  name  "poggi,"  from  "poggiare"  (to 
lean  against),  perfectly  describes  those  buttresses, 
chosen  sites  for  lovely  views  and  change  of  air. 

After  the  first  difficult  ascent  of  the  road  to  the 
level  platform  of  the  hills,  Frascati  rises  before 
our  eyes,  and  the  confused  spots  of  white  and 
copper -green  shape  themselves  into  great  villas, 
standing  in  a  profusion  of  vineyards  and  masses  of 
evergreens,  with  a  convincing  optimism  of  yellow 
and  brown  tints  in  the  architectural  features. 

The  wanderer  feels  the  appeal  of  the  immense 
silence  of  the  Campagna :  a  soundless  voice — a 
motionless  warning  gesture.  Then,  after  a  long 
pause,  his  soul  thrills  again  as  he  threads  his  way 
through  the  largest  Campo  Santo  of  human 
history. 


14 


SIXTINE  ROME 


The  winding  highway  is  set  with  gems.  Groups 
of  lofty  roofed  pines,  overshadowing  a  rustic  home, 
stir  the  imagination  by  their  beauty.  Two 
cypresses  seem  carved  from  marble  in  their  still- 
ness— sentries  of  a  miniature  shrine,  invoking  the 
protection  of  the  Madonna  for  the  vineyards. 
Those  two  cypresses  and  the  little  shrine  in  the 
wall  announce  Frascati,  a  corner  in  a  green  para- 
dise— the  summit  of  the  road  from  Porta  Furba. 

Another  path  passes  over  the  arch  of  Porta 
Furba,  stretches  much  farther  and  reaches  a  lonely 
spot  in  the  Campagna.  It  is  the  itinerary  of  the 
Acqua  Felice,  marked  out  on  all  good  maps  con- 
taining the  suburbs  of  Rome,  and  with  a  twisting 
line  crossing  the  roadway  several  times,  though 
passing  underground,  far  from  Porta  Furba. 

It  is  not  possible  to  follow  the  course  of  the 
water  upwards,  its  route  passing  also  over  a 
number  of  brooks  and  little  rivers.  But,  with 
leisure,  and  the  desire  to  see  the  origin  of  a  great 
Roman  aqueduct,  you  may  take  a  beautiful  walk 
from  Frascati,  along  the  village  of  Colonna,  down 
to  the  Via  Labicana.  Thence,  passing  by  the  sign- 
post "  Osteria  Nuova,"  go  in  the  direction  of 
Rome,  till  the  first  house  is  reached  with  a  small 
path  at  the  right  hand.  This  path  leads  to  a  real 
Italian  farm,  and  some  peasant  will  guide  you. 
A  shepherd,  dressed  in  goatskin  trousers  and 
a  sheepskin  coat,  leads  you  along  stone  marks, 
not  unlike  the  tops  of  obelisks,  to  a  spot  considered 


PORTA  FURBA 


15 


of  some  importance  as  the  "  spring."  The  small- 
ness  of  this  rivulet  leads  one  to  suppose  that  there 
must  be  another  supply  from  underground  or 
from  side  channels. 

Here,  in  the  "  Agro  Colonna,"  a  Pope,  accom- 
panied by  three  Cardinals,  appeared  unexpectedly 
in  the  year  1585.  He  strolled  around  and  gazed 
over  the  Campagna  towards  Rome — his  reign  was 
to  mark  the  horizon  with  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's 
— and,  in  his  imagination,  he  connected  the  spring 
on  the  high  plateau  with  his  beloved  city. 

The  plan  was  of  true  pontifical  splendour, 
worthy  of  a  Caesar  in  strategics,  of  a  Pope  in 
works  of  peace.  In  his  dream  he  saw  the  water 
creeping  down  the  first  declines,  in  the  earth, 
through  passages  crossing  the  roads,  carried  on 
the  arches  of  its  aqueduct  to  the  city  he  would 
transform. 

A  broad  inscription  on  the  Porta  Furba  follow- 
ing in  style  and  character  the  examples  in  Imperial 
reigns,  tells  of  this  Pope  :  Sixtus  V,  who 
"gathered  the  waters  from  afar,  and  brought 
them  onward  to  Rome."  This  is  only  one  other 
instance  of  an  arch  used  as  a  gate  and  of  a  papal 
inscription  far  away  from  the  city  in  the  Cam- 
pagna. A  later  specimen,  we  could  say  imitation, 
by  Paul  V,  is  behind  the  Janiculus  on  a  very 
beautiful  highway,  the  Via  Aurelia  Antica,  one 
which  also  dwells  in  the  mind  by  reason  of  the 
charm  of  its  scenery. 


16 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Ask  one  of  the  peasants  around  Porta  Furba 
who  Sixtus  V  was.  He  will  know.  Sixtus  V 
has  left  the  strongest  impression  in  the  popular 
memory.  To  him  is  attributed  the  Ponte  Sisto, 
and  surely  the  Cappella  Sistina  in  the  Vatican ; 
both,  however,  were  built  by  his  predecessor 
Sixtus  IV ! 

Your  Roman  is  flattered  by  your  curiosity,  and 
pleased  to  show  his  knowledge  of  Italian  celebri- 
ties. He  tells  about  Sixtus  V  coming  into  the 
Conclave  after  the  sudden  death  of  .  .  . — do  not 
ask  whom — of  the  Pope  who  preceded  him — a 
worn,  bent  old  man,  with  one  foot  in  his  grave. 
The  Cardinals,  taken  unawares  and  much  divided 
among  themselves,  agreed  to  elect  him  in  order 
to  have  a  Pope  without  delay,  intending  to  subju- 
gate him  thoroughly  in  the  short  span  of  life  left 
to  him,  and  forming  great  plans  for  the  swiftly 
approaching  Conclave.  As  soon  as  the  election 
was  accomplished,  the  new  Pope  suddenly  revived, 
threw  off  his  crutches,  stood  up  in  his  full 
strength,  and  gave  his  first  commands  in  a  thun- 
dering voice ! 

The  native  Roman  has  often  seen  this  dramatic 
moment  represented  on  the  stage  and  enjoyed 
it  immensely.  It  has  all  the  characteristics  of 
popular  pictures,  novels  and  tragedies :  striking 
colouring,  mingled  with  some  moral  lesson ;  and 
what  is  seldom  missing  in  popular  art  .  .  . 
deceivers  deceived ! 


PORTA  FURBA 


17 


I  return  to  this  chapter  of  popular  history 
which  in  the  meantime  looms  clearer  before  the 
eyes  of  my  readers. 

In  every  way  Sixtus  V  was  an  ingenious  man — 
the  speaker  goes  on  to  say — severe  and  just,  but 
not  tyrannical  like  Nero.  He  continues  to  re- 
count very  amusing  tales  of  the  Pope,  who, 
disguised  as  a  monk,  went  to  the  Coliseum  to 
expose  a  gang  of  bandits  hidden  in  those  ruins ; 
of  his  inventing  leaden  seals  to  mark  measures  for 
wine,  punishing  every  host  who  did  not  mete 
out  the  full  measure.  Without  any  doubt  he 
will  conclude  his  history  with  the  common  sigh : 
"  Even  now  sometimes  a  Sisto  Quinto  would  be 
useful ! " 

As  to  the  arch,  he  will  understand  the  general 
sense  of  the  inscription — his  own  tongue  and  the 
Latin  of  his  church  helping  him — and,  if  you  give 
him  time,  make  quite  an  interesting  speech 
about  Roman  water.  Italians  are  proud  of  the 
sparkling,  rushing  fountains  of  the  Eternal  City ; 
they  know  the  purity  of  the  element,  brought 
from  afar  through  the  arid  Campagna  without 
losing  its  strength  on  the  long  journey.  In  the 
silence  of  some  late  evening  walk,  when  in  many 
parts  of  Rome  the  music  of  the  fountains  guides 
us  to  the  principal  squares,  we  remember  what 
he  has  told  us  of  the  never-ending  energy  of 
Roman  waters.  .  .  . 

The  Popes  were  far-seeing  when  they  placed 
c 


18 


SIXTINE  ROME 


such  an  inscription — aristocratically  not  omitting 
the  Latin  idiom — on  such  a  spot.  All  things  are 
carefully  thought  over  in  Italy.  Sixtus  V  had 
the  opportunity  of  bringing  his  name  and  merits 
before  the  eyes  of  the  passers-by  on  two  of  the 
great  roads  wending  their  way  from  Rome,  each 
on  the  arch  of  an  aqueduct — one  near  the  gate 
of  San  Lorenzo  and  this  one  on  the  Porta 
Furba.  A  curious  concourse  of  circumstances 
now  brings  these  inscriptions  to  the  notice  of 
modern  tourists,  for  one  gate  leads  to  the  steam 
tramway  to  Tivoli  and  the  electric  tramway  to 
Frascati  passes  by  the  other.  The  Pope  did  not 
dream  of  these  possibilities,  but  had  prepared 
his  monumental  note  for  all  times  and  all  even- 
tualities. .  .  . 

For  three  centuries  people  have  come  and  gone 
from  Frascati  through  the  arch  of  Porta  Furba 
and  learned  to  know  Sixtus  V,  while  legend  was 
weaving  the  web  of  antiquity  around  the  figure 
of  the  first  Pope  of  the  Roman  Aqueduct. 

In  the  four  inscriptions  inside  and  outside  the 
two  arches — near  the  gate  of  San  Lorenzo  and  on 
the  Porta  Furba — Sixtus  V  has  set  out  a  pro- 
gramme of  social  economy,  and  has  left  the  history 
of  his  stupendous  hydraulic  enterprise.  The  first 
year  of  his  pontificate,  "  ann.  1585  99  in  Roman 
cipher,  is  the  chronological  indication.  The  work 
was  to  endure  until  the  end  of  his  pontificate  and 
three  hundred  years  or  more,  like  the  uninter- 


PORTA  FURBA 


19 


rupted  stream  of  water  carried  to  Rome.  We 
must  admire,  in  the  first  place,  the  compact  form 
in  which  the  plan  is  expressed  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  pontificate,  and  will  have  occasion  to 
marvel  more  at  the  strong  and  unceasing  efforts 
which  forwarded  it  to  its  termination.  When  the 
pontiff  had  commanded — as  the  outside  of  Porta 
Furba  tells  us — that  water  should  be  supplied 
everywhere,  with  the  intention  of  enabling  the 
deserted  hills  to  be  again  inhabited,  the  outcome 
of  that  command  was  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs 
Papal  Rome  has  ever  known  since  the  Caesars 
.  .  .  the  reconquest  of  the  Hills.  The  wanderer 
coming  towards  the  city  is  able  to  comprehend 
the  plan  from  its  birth  to  its  culmination.  After 
having  passed  through  the  Porta  Furba,  he  searches 
for  the  other  inscription,  as  for  the  reverse  of  a 
medal,  and  realises  that  the  springs  were  finally 
discovered,  imprisoned,  and  conducted  under  the 
ground,  and  that  they  now  flow  through  this  arch. 
.  .  .  On  the  arch  at  Porta  San  Lorenzo — inside 
the  wall  of  the  city,  nearer  the  intensity  of  town 
life — the  Pope  speaks  of  the  two  roads  leading 
to  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  and  Santa  Maria 
degli  Angeli,  one  part  only  of  his  important 
project.  Then  he  also  gives  more  details  :  "  the 
water  passed  thirteen  miles  under  the  ground  and 
seven  miles  over  the  arches."  The  newcomer  to 
Rome,  knowing  the  distance  of  miles  he  has 
measured  on  the  way  from  Tivoli,  sees  in  his 


20 


SIXTINE  ROME 


imagination  the  aqueduct  in  its  full  length  as  long 
as  his  journey,  and  enters  the  Eternal  City  with 
an  alert  interest. 

As  we  pursue  our  investigations,  we  find  inten- 
tion expressed  even  in  the  sentence  of  a  papal 
bull  of  which,  on  the  other  hand,  the  inscription 
presents  the  compound  form.  It  states,  for  in- 
stance, that  once  his  decision  taken  "the  Pope 
refused  to  be  thwarted  either  by  the  expense  or  by 
the  apparently  insurmountable  obstacles  of  the 
work ;  determined  as  he  was  to  establish  a  second 
Rome,  fructified  with  an  abundance  of  wholesome 
water."  The  inscribed  story  is  on  the  fountain  by 
the  church  of  Santa  Susanna,  on  the  Piazza  delle 
Terme  :  he  began  the  aqueduct  in  the  first  year  of 
his  pontificate,  and  completed  it  in  the  third  year, 
1588. 

Through  the  Middle  Ages,  the  only  aqueducts 
kept  constantly  in  use  were  the  Virgo  and  the 
Trajano,  as  their  conduits  passed  for  the  greater 
part  under  the  ground.  The  "  Acqua  Vergine  " 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  representatives  of 
the  Roman  population.  The  most  notable  foun- 
tain was  the  "  Fontana  di  Trevi,"  not  yet  in  its 
present  magnificent  state,  but  merely  a  spring 
with  a  washing-place  near  it,  of  which  we  are  still 
reminded  by  the  neighbouring  Via  del  Lavatore. 

The  aqueduct  has  given  another  name  to  a 
well-known  street  of  Rome  :  the  Via  dei  Condotti 
(Street  of  the  Conduits).   The  conduit  comes  from 


PORTA  FURBA 


21 


the  Pincio,  and  flows  under  Piazza  di  Spagna, 
where  it  feeds  the  curious  Fountain  of  the  Little 
Boat — built  by  the  father  of  the  renowned  Bernini 
— and,  winding  towards  the  Fontana  di  Trevi, 
shows  us  a  fine  remembrance  of  the  classical  aque- 
duct in  the  Via  del  Nazzareno  (behind  Sant'  Andrea 
delle  Frate,  near  the  Via  del  Tritone). 

The  name  Trevi  is  derived  from  the  mediaeval 
name  of  that  quarter  :  Regione  Trevi,  from 
Trivium,  the  coincidence  of  three  roads  near  the 
actual  place  of  the  fountain. 

The  Roman  city  government  instituted  special 
commissions  for  the  maintenance  of  the  fountains. 
I  find  one  of  these  mentioned  in  a  curious  classical 
group,  in  the  Avvisi  of  Rome,  a  kind  of  written 
newspaper,  of  the  time  of  Sixtus  V,  preserved 
amongst  the  manuscripts  of  the  Vatican  Library. 
It  speaks  of  a  day  in  March  of  the  year  1587. 
The  Pope,  ever  economical,  withdrew  the  pension 
paid  out  by  his  treasury  to  the  city  of  Rome,  for 
"  those  who  were  entrusted  with  the  custody  of  the 
Colonna  Trajano  ;  the  walls  of  Rome,  the  Fontana 
di  Trevi,  and  the  reading  of  Titus  Livius." 

Three  of  the  Popes,  celebrated  as  builders  of 
Rome,  interested  themselves  in  the  Acqua  Vergine  : 
Nicolas  V,  Sixtus  IV,  and  Leo  X,  to  which 
Pius  V  added  his  collaboration  in  restoring  the 
aqueduct.  Under  Gregorius  XIII  a  number  of 
fountains  were  opened,  supplied  by  this  water. 

The  fountains  had  not  at  first  their  present 


22 


SIXTINE  ROME 


attractive  form,  as  in  Piazza  Colonna,  Piazza  del 
Popolo,  and  at  the  Pantheon.  But  the  Popes  often 
left  the  final  embellishment  of  their  public  works 
to  their  successors.  Sixtus  V,  for  instance,  took 
up  the  task  left  by  his  predecessor,  Gregorius 
XIII,  and  added  here  an  obelisk,  there  a  rich 
basin  of  fine  material  and  workmanship.  One 
of  his  successors  brought  the  fountain  of  Acqua 
di  Trevi,  or  Vergine,  to  its  existing  eloquent 
shape. 

The  fountain  in  Piazza  Navona  had  to  wait  for 
Bernini  to  make  it  part  of  the  most  wonderful 
scenery  of  any  square  in  the  world.  After  the 
death  of  the  illustrious  master  the  main  spring, 
the  Fontana  di  Trevi,  was  executed  from  memory 
after  his  artistic  design.  It  is  a  unique  example  of 
an  artificial  waterfall  in  the  centre  of  a  city. 

The  aqueduct  of  Alexander  Severus  was  also 
taken  up  by  Gregorius  XIII,  but  he  was  forced  to 
leave  its  completion  to  his  successor,  whose  name, 
Felice,1  it  was  to  bear. 

On  the  "  Fontana  del  Moise  "  a  huge  figure  of 
Moses  striking  the  water  from  the  rock  symbolises 
Sixtus  V  in  the  attitude  most  pleasing  to  his 
fancy. 

The  figures  by  his  side  and  the  bas-reliefs  of 
the  monument  explain  to  the  onlooker  that  Sixtus 
was  a  legislative  sovereign,  who,  amongst  other 
benefits,  bestowed  on  the  thirsting  Romans  a 

1  The  name  of  Sixtus  V  was  Felice  Peretti  before  he  became  Pope. 


Fountain  of  the  Acqua  Felice. 


Photo.  Moscioni 


PORTA  FURBA 


23 


never-dying  source  of  water  called  forward  as  by 
a  miracle. 

If  we  want  proofs  of  this  constant  preoccupa- 
tion, we  find  them  in  the  papal  bulls  of  the  time  of 
Sixtus. 

The  pontiff  shows  himself  a  very  Maecenas  to 
a  not  unimportant  circle  of  artists.  The  sculptor 
of  his  Moses  produced  in  this  statue  one  of  the 
most  unsuccessful  works  of  art  in  Rome.  Criticism 
rained  upon  his  head,  like  the  water  born  under 
the  stroke  of  his  disproportionate  Moses. 

Baglione,  a  painter  and  art-historian,  who  has 
left  us  the  lives  of  the  painters  and  sculptors  from 
1572  till  1G42,  relates  that  this  sculptor,  Prospero 
Bresciano,  a  man  of  much  promise,  had  been  very 
successful  with  the  tomb  of  Gregorius  XIII  in 
Saint  Peter's.  The  four  lions  under  the  obelisk 
in  the  square  before  the  Vatican  are  familiar  to  all 
travellers.  They  should  carry  the  monolith  .  .  . 
but  they  seem  rather  as  if  entrapped  under  its 
weight !  Nevertheless,  they  represent  very  well 
the  particular  type  of  a  grim  lion,  with  square 
features,  taken  from  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  Pope, 
and  a  typical  decorative  design  under  his  reign. 
Those  four  victims  of  the  obelisk  are  the  works  of 
Prospero  Bresciano. 

He  carved  his  Moses,  so  Baglione  writes, 
against  the  advice  of  his  friends,  from  a  block 
lying  on  the  floor.  The  figure  when  raised 
no  longer  corresponded  with  the  general  expecta- 


24 


S1XTINE  ROME 


tion — not  even  with  the  laws  of  perspective.  The 
artist  defended  his  work  against  pitiless  censors, 
but  in  vain,  and  died  of  melancholia  in  the  house 
of  the  famous  archaeologist,  Fulvio  Orsini. 

A  similar  scandal  occurred  at  Florence  in  the 
same  century  at  the  inauguration  of  a  certain 
statue.  On  the  morning  following  its  erection  the 
block,  carved  by  Bandinelli,  was  found  covered 
with  printed  pamphlets  that  are  still  preserved  in 
a  Florentine  library. 

The  armorial  bearings  above  the  monument  of 
Moses  are  by  Flaminio  Vacca,  whose  name  will 
also  become  familiar  to  us  as  a  writer  of  a  memoir 
on  archaeological  discoveries  ;  also  the  bas-relief  on 
the  right,  representing  Gideon  and  the  Soldier. 
The  other  bas-relief,  Moses  striking  the  water 
from  the  Rock,  is  the  work  of  G.  B.  della  Porta. 
A  document  states  that  the  experts  valued  it  at 
1350  scudi  (a  scudo  is  now  four  shillings,  but  was 
worth  much  more  at  that  time).  Sixtus  V 
reduced  it  to  1000  scudi,  and  with  this  sum 
the  sculptor  had  to  be  content. 

We  find  in  Rome  another  charmingly  conceived 
fountain  built  under  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V :  its 
beauty  seems  to  corroborate  the  tradition  that  the 
original  plan  was  drawn  by  Raphael. 

Four  tall  bronze  figures  of  young  men  are  seen 
holding  basins  on  which,  from  their  hands,  four 
turtles  climb  with  much  precaution.  The  Romans 
love  this  "Fontana  delle  Tartarughe,"  as  was 


PORTA  FURBA 


25 


proved  by  the  universal  consternation  when  lately 
one  of  the  turtles  was  stolen ;  and  the  public  feel- 
ing was  demonstrated  even  more  by  the  general 
rejoicings  when  the  turtle  was  returned  to  its 
former  place,  having  been  found  after  the  thief 
had  thrown  it  away. 

In  popular  Roman  stories  the  "  fountain  of  the 
turtles"  holds  a  unique  place.  It  has  been  thought 
strange  that  one  of  the  windows  of  the  Palazzo 
Mattei,  facing  the  square  of  this  fountain,  should 
have  been  walled  in,  and  it  is  naturally  attempted 
to  connect  the  closed  window  with  a  story  that 
will  include  also  the  fountain. 

A  member  of  the  Mattei  family — thus  runs  the 
legend — living  too  lavishly,  had  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  his  future  father-in-law  to  such  a  point 
that  the  father  withdrew  his  permission  to  the 
marriage.  Then  young  Mattei,  to  show  his  clever- 
ness and  the  power  of  his  finances,  swiftly  (in  one 
night !)  erected  the  Fountain  of  the  Turtles  in  front 
of  the  palace.  The  next  day  the  sight  conquered 
the  irate  father  and  won  back  his  approval ;  the 
window  from  which  the  father's  wondering  eyes 
first  saw  the  fountain  was  walled  in  as  a  perpetual 
remembrance.  Another  more  malignant  version 
says  that  Mattei  first  married  the  daughter,  and 
then,  out  of  spite,  spent  her  entire  fortune  on  the 
Fontana  delle  Tartarughe ! 

The  man  who,  after  fruitless  efforts,  brought  the 
Acqua  Felice  to  Rome,  and  who  was  the  foremost 


26 


SIXTINE  ROME 


artist  in  direct  contact  with  Sixtus  V,  was  the 
architect  Fontana.  The  portraits  of  the  two  have 
been  preserved  in  a  painting  in  the  Vatican  Library, 
where  Fontana  is  seen  showing  his  master  the 
plans  for  the  splendid  hall  in  which  the  painting  is 
located :  the  show  room  of  the  library. 

Domenico  Fontana  had  shared  the  days  of  dis- 
grace of  Cardinal  Felice  Peretti,  and,  when  but  a 
poor  mason-boy,  had  built  a  modest  home  for  the 
Cardinal.  Often  he  was  entrusted  with  the  care 
of  the  money  economised  by  this  prince  of  the 
Church. 

Later  in  life  their  names  were  to  be  coupled 
in  great  constructions,  such  as  the  Acqua  Felice, 
etc.  Is  it  not  a  specimen  of  the  humour  of  fate 
that  the  architect  of  the  Pope  who  gave  the 
Romans  water  should  be  called  Fontana  .  .  .  ? 

The  walk  to  Porta  Furba  will  inspire  us  with  a 
greater  eagerness  for  discovery.  Again  the  "Anno 
pontiflcatus  I,"  that  "  first  year  of  the  pontificate," 
remains  in  our  mind.  The  example  is  so  fine ; 
the  start  so  grandiose  !  an  ardent  desire  arises  in 
us  to  know  more  of  this  man,  his  pontificate,  and 
the  works  he  conceived  afterwards.  It  is  like  an 
article  by  a  good  writer  seen  by  chance  in  a 
review.  After  one  proof  of  talent  we  feel  confi- 
dence, interest,  a  ready  friendship,  a  greater 
curiosity.  We  want  his  portrait,  and  will  study 
it  in  detail,  noting  his  features,  the  shape  of  his 


PORTA  FURBA 


27 


hand,  his  whole  attitude  with  the  anticipated 
benevolence  upon  which  real  artists  can  rely. 

The  Porta  Furba  calls  our  attention  to  an 
author  who  wrote  his  name  in  stone.  The  first 
impression  counts  the  most ;  but,  supposing  we 
saw  his  other  works  first  and  then  the  Porta 
Furba,  the  impression  would  still  be  produced,  as, 
for  instance,  the  personality  of  a  great  historian 
gains  in  our  eyes  when  we  discover  a  little  volume 
of  poetry  written  in  his  earliest  years. 

If  we  arrive,  for  instance,  by  the  old  road,  over 
Siena  and  Viterbo  to  Rome,  and  alight  at  a  little 
station,  with  the  glory  of  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's 
before  our  eyes,  as  a  general  introduction  such  an 
arrival  is  in  every  sense  monumental.  There,  the 
glory  of  Michelangelo,  who  planned,  overshadows 
that  of  Sixtus  V,  who  achieved.  Porta  Furba 
portrays  the  Pope  in  his  most  attractive  aspect. 

Returning  to  the  city,  we  pass  through  the 
streets  which  he  planned,  the  hills  which  he  ren- 
dered habitable,  along  buildings  marked  with  the 
very  strong  characteristics  of  the  later  years  of  his 
pontificate. 

Leave  all  this  for  a  sentimental  journey  through 
the  Rome  of  Sixtus  V.  The  buildings  along  the 
hilly  streets  change  in  the  brief  twilight  from  pale 
rose  to  grey  and  black — and  transform  the  music 
from  major  to  minor,  from  allegro  maestoso  to 
andante  lamentoso. 


II 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  IN  SANTA 
MARIA  MAGGIORE 


T  every  step  Italy  offers  the  opportunity  of 


learning  that  which  the  whole  world  likes  to 
know.  It  is  like  an  open  book  held  before  our 
eyes.  Even  without  any  great  effort,  the  sense 
of  the  outspread  pages  penetrates  the  mind. 
Archaeology,  History,  and  Art  lie  everywhere  on 
the  traveller's  way,  without  the  necessity  of  going 
to  a  museum.  So  much  so  that  many  even  who 
are  quite  indifferent  to  learning  cannot  overcome 
a  growing  interest  in  all  around  them. 

Those  who  remain  in  this  country,  even  for  less 
than  a  month,  will  find  themselves  unconsciously 
acquainted  with  quite  a  vocabulary  of  technical 
terms  of  archaeology  and  art.  "  Fresco,"  "  tempera," 
"  bas-relief,"  the  different  names  for  the  garments 
of  Roman  and  Greek  statues,  the  manifold  ways 
of  building  in  brick  and  stone,  the  stone-material 
itself,  the  various  orders  of  columns  and  arches, 
will  become  clear  expressions  to  the  most  ordinary 
person.  He  has  heard  of,  read  about,  and  seen 
them  hundreds  of  times,  and  they  have  entered 
unobtrusively  into  his  daily  language. 


28 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  29 


People  often  undergo  a  transformation  in  Italy; 
for  a  short  period,  the  atmosphere  goes  to  their 
heads.  They  use  the  new  language  with  the  joy 
of  children  who  begin  to  master  the  power  of 
speech,  filling  every  conversation  with  views  on 
art,  born  in  their  unpractised  fancy — as,  in  the 
nursery,  the  Olympic  races  are  evolved  out  of  one 
horizontal  and  one  perpendicular  chair.  Those 
who  have  studied  for  as  many  years  as  others  have 
walked  days,  find  it  difficult  to  express  their  admira- 
tion for  the  Moses  of  Michelangelo. 

Returning  to  Sixtus  V,  you  will  have  observed 
on  the  Porta  Furba,  carved  in  one  of  the  corners, 
three  little  mountains  of  uniform  shape.  They 
occur,  with  or  without  a  star,  on  many  monuments 
of  Rome,  but  it  does  not  every  time  follow  that 
the  monument  dates  from  the  pontificate  of 
Sixtus  V. 

Mountains  are  in  the  coat  of  arms  of  several 
Popes,  and  mislead  the  unwary  visitor  to  Rome, 
who  was  proud  to  have  learned  by  heart  the 
armorial  bearings  of  at  least  one  Pope.  This 
danger  also  occurs  with  the  different  Popes  of  the 
Medici  family,  in  whose  coats  of  arms  are  always 
six  balls. 

I  speak  here  of  the  most  convincing  examples 
only,  for  the  complicated  insignia  of  some  Popes 
further  confuse  this  question  when  one  detail  is 
used  for  decorative  purposes. 

The  complete  coat  of  arms  of  Sixtus  V  can 


30 


SIXTINE  ROME 


never  be  mistaken.  You  find  it  on  the  Fountain 
of  Moses.  The  lion,  with  the  pears  in  his  paw, 
standing  upright ;  and,  crossing  him,  a  bar  with 
the  three  mountains  and  the  star.  The  Pope's 
name  was  Felice  Peretti ;  he  was  born  in  Montalto. 
The  three  mountains  represent  his  birthplace, 
Montalto  (literally  high  mountain) ;  and,  as 
"Peretti"  means  "little  pears,"  those  fruits  are 
placed  in  the  mighty  clasp  of  the  lion. 

The  analysis  of  the  coat  of  arms — perhaps  also 
on  the  "Quattro  Fontane" — is  only  partly  re- 
sponsible for  the  decoration  with  lions'  heads  in 
monuments  of  Sixtus  V.  The  royal  animal's 
head  was  a  favourite  design  long  before  the  time 
of  the  stern  Pope,  who  was  proud  of  his  own 
symbol. 

I  have  explained  the  "  Montalto."  The  pears 
alone,  recalling  the  name  of  the  Cardinal  before  his 
pontificate,  might  be  of  little  interest  to  the  public. 
Even  the  name  Felice  applied  to  the  water  had  to 
be  explained  on  the  fountain  as  being  Sixtus'  name 
before  he  was  made  Pope.  They  do  not  figure 
alone  in  the  coat  of  arms  like  the  "  little  pots  " 
(pignatelli)  and  the  "  oak  "  (rovere)  in  the  arms  of 
Innocentius  XII  and  of  Sixtus  IV  and  Julius  II. 
The  Pignatelli  and  Rovere  may  be  more  familiar  to 
some  than  the  Peretti  of  Sixtus  V's  arms. 

A  beautiful  example  of  the  analysis  of  his  armo- 
rial bearings  is  given  in  the  decorative  frieze  at  the 
palace  of  St.  John  in  Lateran,  above  two  of  the 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  31 


facades — the  lion  and  the  pear  alternating  in  an 
elegant  and  by  no  means  tedious  succession. 

Even  more  artistic  is  another  design  for  the 
same  architectural  purpose  on  a  house  opposite 
the  well-known  Baths  of  Titus  or  the  Golden 
House  of  Nero,  nearly  facing  the  entrance.  The 
foundation  of  this  house  probably  dates  from 
Sixtus  V,  as  is  mentioned  on  a  marble  tablet  in 
the  wall ;  it  was  a  kind  of  suburban  retreat  con- 
nected with  a  city  hospital. 

Where  the  "  Montalto "  leaves  a  doubt,  not 
being  accompanied  by  a  date  of  the  reign  (1.585- 
1590),  it  is  better  to  look  for  the  complete  coat  of 
arms. 

From  the  Porta  Furba,  the  gateway  at  San 
Lorenzo  and  the  Fountain  of  Moses,  it  may  be 
surmised  that  Sixtus  was  not  parsimonious  with 
inscriptions.  Already  in  his  own  time  this  charac- 
teristic had  been  observed.  Some  calligrapher  and 
engraver  collected  in  a  handsome  oblong  album, 
now  a  rarity  for  bibliophiles,  the  inscriptions  made 
under  this  Pope.  He  offered  them  to  the  public 
as  patterns  of  elegance  in  the  language — always 
Latin — and  in  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  the 
letters,  taken  from  the  best  classical  models.  The 
book  is  a  proof  of  what  we  might  have  guessed, 
that  is,  that  the  perfect  form  and  lettering  of  the 
inscriptions  of  Sixtus  V  are  not  due  to  mere 
chance,  but  the  result  of  careful  selection  and 
premeditation. 


32 


SIXTINE  ROME 


There  is  in  Italy  always  a  deeper  meaning  to  all 
things  than  at  first  would  seem  to  the  casual 
onlooker.  Here  it  is  nothing  less  than  the  whole 
spirit  of  the  Renaissance.  .  .  . 

On  the  outside  of  one  of  the  chapels  of  the 
basilica  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  the  arms  of 
Felice  Peretti  reappear  in  a  very  modest  ornamen- 
tal application,  so  simple  that  they  escape  the  eye 
lost  in  admiration  of  the  graceful  incline  of  steps, 
smoothly  leading  to  the  tribuna  of  one  of  the  seven 
churches,  and  the  happy  combination  of  straight 
lines,  broad  surfaces  and  gentle  curves,  which  give 
to  this  part  of  the  church  a  wonderful  charm. 

No  doubt  can  be  left  as  to  the  founder  of  this 
chapel,  as  soon  as  we  seek  inside  the  church  on 
the  right  aisle.  The  Pope's  name  is  visible  over 
the  barred  windows,  between  the  chapel  and  the 
side  nave,  and  there  are  many  examples  of  his 
full  coat  of  arms  in  the  decorations. 

It  is  the  "Cappella  Sistina,"  chapel  of  Sixtus  V, 
the  model  of  the  "  Cappella  Paolina  "  (of  Paul  V) 
at  the  opposite  side  of  the  nave. 

The  two  Popes  had  the  good  judgment  not 
to  remove  any  of  the  venerable  antiquities  of  the 
old  church,  but  to  build  their  own  chapels  as 
an  addition  to  the  ancient  body  of  the  basilica. 
They  satisfied  their  own  spirit  of  devotion  to  one 
of  the  principal  and  oldest  churches  of  Rome 
without  imposing  the  authority  of  their  own  times 
on  those  parts  which  could  not  protest. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  33 


When  we  consider  the  remains  of  the  original 
basilica  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  as  an  architec- 
tural relic,  we  may  say  that  it  is  enclosed  within  a 
precious  shrine,  the  present  exterior  of  the  church. 
It  would  be  unfair  on  our  part  to  criticise  Sixtus  V, 
who  started  the  work  of  enclosure,  and  those  who 
continued  his  work :  the  second  facade  beyond 
the  loggia,  and  the  old  campanile  are  the  sole 
external  remains  of  the  former  walled-in  church. 

Neither  should  we  censure  the  ancient  custom  of 
whitewashing  frescoes,  often  a  necessity  in  order  to 
disinfect  a  church  used  as  a  hospital  in  times  of 
an  epidemic.  But  many  condemn  this  old-time 
practice,  not  realising  that  the  chalk  when  scraped 
off  has  often  revealed  beautiful  and  precious  fres- 
coes. They  attribute  every  slight  damage  to  this 
plastering,  not  reflecting  that  the  whole  painting 
might  have  been  lost  by  slowly  wearing  away 
or  blackened  by  the  smoke  of  candles. 

Though  we  like  to  have  a  perfect  image  of  the 
mediaeval  and  Early  Christian  Rome  before  our 
eyes,  we  must  not  be  too  exacting.  The  culture 
of  antiquities,  as  far  as  they  were  Christian,  has 
in  one  instance — St.  Peter's — led  to  much  that  is 
regrettable. 

There  can  be  no  question  there  that,  with  all 
the  Bramantes  and  Michelangelos,  we  have  lost 
much  that  we  might  have  retained.  Only  this 
must  not  prejudice  us  against  all  work  of  restora- 
tion, even  if  done  thoroughly  and  including  a 

D 


34 


SIXTPNE  ROME 


transformation  of  the  exterior.  We  might  be — 
and  that  is  what  I  mean — exceedingly  glad,  if 
we  had  the  old  St.  Peter's  within  its  case  of  new 
walls,  as  we  have  still  within  the  new  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore,  the  splendid  nave  and  tribuna  of  the 
old  Sancta  Maria  ad  Nives. 

Sixtus  V  had  many  reasons  for  his  preference 
for  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  Already  as  a  Cardinal 
he  had  begun  to  build  in  the  neighbourhood  his 
Villa  Montalto,  now  vanished  under  the  modern 
quarter  of  the  city.  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  was 
one  of  the  great  churches  on  the  hills  which  he 
wished  to  render  habitable  and  situated  exactly  in 
the  centre  of  the  new  streets  which  he  intended  to 
open,  the  principal  one  being  the  Via  Felice  (now 
called  Via  Sistina). 

It  is  to  his  credit  that  his  object  in  founding  a 
chapel,  besides  giving  a  beautiful  position  to  one  of 
the  relics  preserved  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  was 
the  erection  of  a  tomb  for  Pius  V,  who  had  deeply 
loved  him,  and  to  whom  he  had  been  especially 
attached. 

The  original  plan  certainly  also  contained  the 
tomb  of  Sixtus  V  himself,  completed  after  his 
death  by  his  nephew,  Alessandro  Peretti,  whom 
he  had  made  a  Cardinal  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and 
who  in  the  future  was  to  take  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  building  of  Sant'  Andrea  della  Valle. 

The  construction,  in  which  the  architecture  of 
the  tombs  of  the  two  Popes  is  nearly  lost,  clearly 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL 


35 


shows  the  original  intention.  They  are  not  only 
identical  in  outline,  but  also  in  their  portrayal  of 
the  principal  facts  of  the  two  pontifical  lives  in 
inscriptions  and  bas-reliefs. 

We  have  an  excellent  book,  with  a  short  history 
of  the  lives  of  the  Popes,  compiled  from  their 
tombs — one  of  Gregorovius'  more  popular  writ- 
ings. 

It  was  reserved  for  the  century  of  which  Cardinal 
Alessandro  Montalto  was  to  see  a  quarter  to  pro- 
duce after  his  demise  a  falsification  of  history  such 
as  has  hardly  ever  been  adduced  against  any  Pope 
on  such  a  vast  scale.  We  should  not  have  to  deal 
in  this  book  with  those  imaginations,  inventions, 
and  calumnies  of  one  Gregorius  Leti  and  his  imita- 
tors if  their  books  had  not  spread  a  world-wide 
influence  of  would-be  historical  notions  about 
Sixtus. 

The  story  is  well  known  of  a  Cardinal  who,  with 
assumed  senility  and  sickness,  deceived  his  col- 
leagues for  years,  until  the  very  day  of  his  election. 
The  Romans  of  Porta  Furba  and  elsewhere  tell 
this  story,  which  we  all  had  heard  long  before.  It 
has  occurred  to  us  that  his  name  was  Sixtus  V,  and 
it  is  proved  by  the  great  historian  Ranke,  whose 
Die  Romischen  Papste  should,  if  possible,  be  read 
in  the  original ;  he  proves  conclusively  that  the 
malignant  fancy  of  Leti  has  been  able  to  blind  the 
whole  world  on  this  subject.  A  certain  Tempesti 
had  been  charged  to  cleanse  the  historical  figure  of 


36 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  Pope  from  all  the  ink  spots  which  Leti  had 
thrown  upon  it.  But  he  rubbed  the  bronze 
too  hard,  and  the  effect  was  a  highly-polished 
statuette  which  nobody  would  accept  as  the 
true  image  of  the  most  energetic  reformer 
amongst  the  Popes,  whose  reign  only  lasted 
from  1585-1590. 

Critical  history  has  completed  Ranke's  portrait 
of  Sixtus.  One  of  the  former  Ambassadors  of 
Austria  to  the  Vatican — Hiibner — published  his 
book,  Siarte  Quint,  based  upon  the  contemporary 
reports  of  the  Venetian,  Florentine,  Spanish,  and 
French  Ambassadors.  Illumined  by  those  powerful 
searchlights,  Sixtus  appears  quite  otherwise  than 
by  the  flare  of  Leti's  tallow-candle. 

The  life  history  of  this  Pope  is  engraved  on  a 
black  stone,  in  golden  letters,  under  the  kneeling 
statue.  The  form  is  compact,  yet  the  inscription 
is  long.  There  was  so  much  to  relate  about  him, 
that  even  an  imitation  of  the  Roman  shorthand  in 
epigraphy  did  not  reduce  its  size.  Perhaps  if  the 
composer  had  not  been  Alessandro  Peretti,  but 
Pietro  Bembo,  he  would  have  found  a  magical  for- 
mula such  as  he  dictated  over  the  grave  of  Raphael 
in  the  Pantheon.  But  Bembo  would  not  have 
been  at  his  ease  with  this  Pope,  and  who  knows  if 
the  epitaph  would  not  have  had  some  grain  of  the 
bitterness  distilled  in  the  epitaph  of  Aretino,  com- 
posed while  he  was  alive — one  of  the  most  piercing 
satires  the  Renaissance  has  produced  ? 


THE  S1XTINE  CHAPEL  37 


The  beginning  of  the  inscription  tells  us  that 
Sixtus  was  born  at  Cupra,  in  Piceno,  and  edu- 
cated at  Montalto.  These  simple  facts,  testi- 
fied by  this  memorial,  have  been  the  subject 
of  endless  controversies.  As  soon  as  a  Pope  is 
elected,  his  birthplace  becomes  the  centre  of  public 
interest.  The  same  thing  happens  when  Presi- 
dents of  republics  are  elected,  only  with  Popes 
the  interest  is  even  more  international.  Often 
some  small  country  place  or  some  eagle's  nest  lost 
in  the  mountains  suddenly  becomes  famous. 
Who  had  heard  of  Carpineto  before  Cardinal 
Pecci  was  elected  under  the  name  of  Leo 
XIII? 

Seven  cities  fought  for  the  honour  of  being  the 
birthplace  of  Homer.  This  was  possible,  as 
Homer  did  not  take  time  or  trouble  to  shed  any 
light  on  the  subject.  On  the  contrary,  Sixtus  V 
has  declared  several  times  in  ordinary  conversation 
and  in  public  utterance  that  he  was  born  in  Grot- 
tammare,  which  place  corresponds  to  the  former 
Cupra.  He  often  bestowed  gifts  and  favours  on 
his  humble  birthplace.  Neither  did  he  forget  that 
his  family  originally  came  from  Dalmatia.  As  a 
Cardinal,  he  was  protector  of  the  Roman  church 
of  San  Girolamo  for  the  nations  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Adriatic.  It  was  then  but  a  little  old 
church,  but,  under  his  pontificate,  it  was  trans- 
formed into  the  handsome  structure — architecture 
by  Martino  Lunghi — which  we  admire  from  the 


38 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Ponte  Cavour.  The  Montalto  design  is  to  be 
found  there  in  abundant  evidence. 

It  seems  that  the  Peretti  family  had  fled  from 
their  territory  because  of  Turkish  persecutions. 
Sixtus  V  ever  was  an  implacable  enemy  of  the 
Turks,  and  probably  had  some  reason  for  this 
hatred. 

The  birth  of  Sixtus  V— December  13th,  1521— 
in  Grottammare  was  the  consequence  of  another 
flight  of  the  Peretti  family  caused  by  the  invasion 
of  the  army  of  Francesco  I,  Duke  of  Urbino. 
The  story  goes  that,  even  under  such  unhappy 
circumstances,  the  father  of  the  future  Pope  had  a 
presentiment  which  caused  him  to  give  his  son  the 
good-omened  name  of  "  Felice  "  (happy),  and  after- 
wards educated  him  as  well  as  he  could  in  order 
to  reach  the  goal  of  his  ambitions.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  boy  may  have  had  to  look  after  domestic 
animals.  The  simple  life  of  those  parts  of  Italy 
makes  it  very  possible  that  the  lowest  of  those  had 
the  attention  of  the  young  Peretti. 

The  fact  was  afterwards  used  as  a  strong  anti- 
thesis: the  Pope,  who  was  a  swineherd  in  his  youth! 
But,  as  often  happens  with  such  an  antithesis,  pre- 
pared to  strike  the  fancy  of  the  public,  it  loses  its 
power  when  we  look  at  it  more  closely. 

Early  in  life  he  entered  a  monastery,  and 
became  a  novice  at  the  age  of  twelve.  His  best 
biographer  follows  the  great  inscription  of  the 
chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  very  closely  when 


The  Villa  of  Cardinal  Montalto. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  39 


speaking  of  the  remarkable  oratorical  powers  of  the 
young  Fra  Peretti — "  concionator  insignis." 

In  the  library  of  the  Chigi  family  in  Rome, 
a  book  is  preserved  with  daily  notes  by  the  monk ; 
the  true  diary  of  an  ecclesiastical  man  who  has  to 
be  more  careful  with  his  money  than  with  his 
talents.  He  had  suffered  from  penury  from  the 
very  start.  It  has  been  observed  that  economy 
was  the  virtue  he  admired  most ;  he  praised  it  on 
every  occasion,  even  in  the  solemn  form  of  papal 
bulls.  As  for  extravagance,  he  fumed  against 
those  who  wasted  money,  his  own  life  being  an 
example  of  frugality.  Before  assuming  the  purple 
robes,  he  was  forced  to  accept  the  "  poor  Cardinal's 
pension."  His  friend  and  protector,  Pius  V, 
willingly  accorded  him  this  pension,  but  one  day 
Gregorius  XIII  happened  to  notice  the  erection 
of  Cardinal  Peretti's  "  Villa  Montalto  "  as  he  was 
coming  out  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  took  the 
pension  from  him,  saying  that  Cardinals  who  could 
build  such  country  houses  had  no  need  of  charity. 

Among  records  of  small  pecuniary  gifts  to 
members  of  his  family  and  to  members  of 
monastic  orders,  titles  of  the  books  composing  the 
humble  private  library  of  the  monk  who  was  to 
build  the  Vatican  Library  in  its  present  magnificent 
form,  together  with  careful  notes  of  sheep  he  had 
bought  and  sent  to  his  brother's  pastures,  we  find 
the  names  of  the  places  where  the  youthful  Pe- 
retti went  to  preach. 


40 


SIXTINE  ROME 


It  is  a  whole  itinerary,  between  the  years 
1539  and  1555,  stretching  from  North  Italy  to 
Naples.  Another  precious  book  contains  some 
examples  of  his  ecclesiastical  eloquence.  The 
sermons  were  printed  in  Naples  in  1554.  The 
only  copy  extant  lies  among  the  treasures  of 
the  Barberini  collection,  now  a  part  of  the  Vati- 
can Library. 

The  date  and  the  very  fact  of  the  printing  are 
easily  explained.  Fra  Peretti,  not  long  before,  had 
caused  a  scandal  by  daring  to  preach  against 
Charles  V. 

It  was  only  an  instance  of  the  democratic  feelings 
which  he  was  to  show  more  clearly  during  his 
papal  reign. 

His  reputation  as  a  speaker  was  soon  estab- 
lished, but  it  was  not  easy  for  his  protectors  to 
defend  his  situation  as  a  poor  monk  criticising  the 
mightiest  ruler  of  Europe.  And  yet  they  brought 
him  through  those  attacks,  and  were  delighted 
when  his  eloquence  attracted  the  whole  of  Rome 
to  his  sermons  in  the  church  of  Santi  Apostoli. 
Ignatius  of  Loyola,  Filippo  Neri,  and  two  future 
Popes,  one  of  whom  was  to  be  canonised — Cardi- 
nal Ghisleri,  afterwards  Pius  V — complimented 
him  in  glowing  terms  after  his  sermons.  It  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  the  brilliant  new  preacher 
found  a  publisher  at  once.  The  rarity  of  the  book 
may  also  be  considered  as  a  proof  that  it  was  much 
read. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  41 


The  inscription  on  the  tomb  at  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  goes  on  to  describe  his  position  in  the 
Inquisition  and  in  the  order  of  St.  Francis.  It  gives, 
of  course,  a  mere  outline  of  the  momentous  epoch 
in  the  life  of  Fra  Peretti ;  his  struggles  to  impose 
his  strict  ideas  upon  all  the  convents  of  his  order, 
to  which  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  of  reform.  He 
met  with  some  resistance,  particularly  in  Venice, 
in  the  great  monastery  of  Frari. 

When  he  had  gained  his  cause  (for  which  pur- 
pose he  had  to  retire  to  Rome)  he  showed  great 
magnanimity  towards  his  principal  adversaries 
and  a  brilliant  future  was  predicted  for  such  excep- 
tional nobility  of  character.  This  was  the  first 
time  when  he  astonished  the  Court  of  Rome  by 
one  of  his  characteristics  :  "  a  facility  to  forgive 
great  offences  more  easily  than  small  ones." 

Before  reaching  the  summit  he  had  to  ascend 
a  difficult  road.  One  incident  is  mentioned  in  the 
inscription,  in  the  most  innocent  way.  Felice 
Peretti  was  sent  to  Spain  by  Pius  V,  with 
Cardinal  Ugo  Boncompagni,  the  Apostolic  Dele- 
gate. This  is  an  historical  fact,  worthily  men- 
tioned in  the  peaceful  epitaph.  It  even  has  some 
rhetorical  worth.  Italians  never  neglect  that 
part  of  an  inscription  on  a  monument  which  is 
"  lodatoria "  (praise).  Eulogy  assumed  a  sub- 
stantial part  in  any  inscription  which  went  beyond 
a  mere  statement  of  biographical  dates. 

It  was  an  honour  for  Fra  Peretti  to  be  sent  on 


42 


SIXTINE  ROME 


this  expedition,  and  the  mention  of  it  on  his 
tombstone  took  the  character  of  a  eulogy.  Most 
probably  the  monk  distinguished  by  Pius  V  gave 
little  thought  to  this  posthumous  honour,  when 
struggling  against  the  antipathy  showed  to  him 
by  Cardinal  Boncompagni  and  enduring  the 
humiliations  which  he  had  to  suffer. 

Cardinal  Boncompagni  never  overcame  this 
feeling,  and  continued  his  negligent  treatment 
of  Fra  Felice  when,  later  on,  he  succeeded  to  the 
Papal  throne  as  Gregorius  XIII. 

On  his  side,  Felice  Peretti,  when  he  had  be- 
come Sixtus  V,  never  forgot  the  antagonism  of 
Cardinal  Boncompagni,  and  more  particularly  the 
hostile  acts  of  Gregorius  XIII.  He  often  criti- 
cised the  deeds  of  his  predecessor,  and  pointed 
out  how  differently  he  himself  performed  his  own 
duties. 

Sincere  admiration  on  both  sides  existed  be- 
tween Pius  V  and  Peretti,  whom  he  had  made 
a  Cardinal. 

The  Sixtine  Chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore 
is  a  monument  of  his  gratitude.  The  tomb  of 
Pius  V  and  his  own  sepulchre  are  united  under 
the  dome,  which  another  Pius  (Pius  IX)  restored 
to  its  present  state.  Pius  V  also  was  of  modest 
extraction,  and  had  been  a  monk  in  the  order  of 
St.  Dominic — he  is  represented  as  such  in  the  bas- 
relief  of  gilded  bronze  on  his  tomb.  He  after- 
wards took  a  central  position  in  great  political 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  43 


and  historical  events  pictured  in  marble  bas- 
reliefs,  which  assume  the  aspect  of  paintings  by 
their  picturesque  effects  of  light  and  shade. 

Under  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V  a  biography  of 
Pius  V  was  written,  and  in  January,  1588,  his 
remains  were  brought  to  the  vault  in  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore. 

Sixtus  V  often  visited  the  site  of  his  future 
resting-place  in  its  work  of  construction.  He 
frequently  paid  similar  visits  to  other  buildings  of 
his  in  course  of  being  erected,  to  the  discomfiture 
of  the  overseers.  The  A  wist,  the  primitive  news- 
paper of  those  days,  tell  us  how  he  once  unex- 
pectedly appeared  at  the  palazzo  of  St.  John  in 
Lateran,  and  sternly  rebuked  the  workmen  for 
their  indolence.  He  walked  around  over  half- 
finished  walls  and  vaults  with  juvenile  agility, 
notwithstanding  the  bad  weather. 

One  day  in  July,  1587,  he  arrived,  with  twelve 
Cardinals,  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and,  after 
hearing  mass,  entered  the  Cappella  del  Presepe, 
or  Sixtine  Chapel.  His  old  friend  Fontana  was 
present,  and  not  greatly  surprised  when  Sixtus 
told  him  to  hasten  with  the  work,  saying  that 
he  might  begin  new  undertakings  at  once,  but 
specially  urging  him  to  push  on  the  work  of 
his  tomb. 

A  protest  arose  from  the  Cardinals,  who  pre- 
dicted that  the  Pope  would  accomplish  much  more 
before  being  carried  to  Santa  Maria  Maggiore. 


44 


S1XTINE  ROME 


It  would  seem  that  the  kneeling  statue,  repre- 
sented in  adoration  of  the  relic  after  which  the 
chapel  is  named,  was  put  in  its  place  during 
the  Pope's  lifetime. 

To  a  man  of  strong  fibre  like  Peretti,  it  prob- 
ably caused  no  emotion  to  see  his  own  tomb 
completed  by  a  life-size  statue  of  himself  placed 
in  its  centre. 

It  would  seem  from  his  unremitting  haste  as 
if  Sixtus  felt  that  his  reign  would  be  a  brief  one ; 
that,  after  his  coronation  as  Pope,  his  days  were 
numbered.  A  mighty  rush  pervades  the  whole 
pontificate,  as  will  be  noticed  when  his  achieve- 
ments are  catalogued  and  mentioned  more  in  detail. 

Fontana  himself  was  astonished  at  the  restless 
activity  of  his  mighty  patron.  When  describing 
his  works  as  architect  to  Sixtus  V,  he  apologises 
for  his  laconism,  saying  that  everything  had  to  be 
done  rapidly,  as  other  orders  were  already  await- 
ing him. 

Baglione  the  biographer  describes  Sixtus  as 
"one  who  loved  hurry." 

His  other  characteristics  are  brought  forward : 
a  hasty  temper,  a  passion  for  talking,  and  a  very 
close  handling  of  all  money  matters,  combined 
with  some  traits  betraying  the  former  monk  until 
the  end  of  his  life. 

Ambassadors  often  speak  of  scenes  of  fury  in 
the  very  rooms  of  the  Pope,  and,  on  other  occasions, 
express  their  surprise  that  His  Holiness  talked  so 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL 


45 


much.  He  had  a  craving  for  speech — "talking 
fever,"  as  his  best  biographer  calls  it. 

Something  of  the  preacher  was  left !  But  the 
Pope  seldom  preached,  and  then  only  before  a 
small  circle,  who  always  marvelled  at  his  deep 
eloquence.  In  his  new  position,  this  mania  for 
talking  was  perhaps  not  always  advantageous. 

His  talent  for  economy  is  even  alluded  to  in 
anecdotes.  Public  opinion  often  busied  itself  with 
the  subject,  but  with  all  due  circumspection. 

The  severity  which  characterised  the  reign  of 
Sixtus  V  from  first  to  last,  made  everybody 
careful  in  his  speech.  The  so-called  "  menanti," 
writers  of  little  papers  to  be  sent  to  other  courts 
of  Italy,  had  to  be  extremely  prudent  if  they  did 
not  wish  to  finish  their  career  at  the  stake  on  the 
bridge  before  Castle  St.  Angelo. 

Pasquino  alone  went  on  as  boldly  as  ever.  Un- 
seen hands  attached  pamphlets  to  the  mutilated 
statue,  its  basis,  and  the  wall  behind  it.  He  de- 
clared that  the  laundresses  of  Rome  would  soon 
have  to  pay  taxes  for  the  rays  of  the  sun,  so  useful 
to  their  profession.  .  .  . 

The  temperament  of  Sixtus  made  him  some- 
times smile  and  sometimes  rage  at  Pasquino.  But 
he  was  as  unable  to  suppress  this  daring  fellow  as 
was  any  other  Pope.  The  will  of  one  man,  be  he 
a  Sovereign,  had  to  submit  to  the  strong  nature  of 
the  Roman  population,  and  its  habit  of  free  speech, 
under  all  kinds  of  different  rulers.    Still  in  our 


46 


SIXTINE  ROME 


days  the  real  Roman  has  an  especial  talent  for 
grasping  a  situation,  and  expressing  it  in  a  satirical 
form,  or  even  in  a  short  rhyme. 

The  history  of  Rome  after  1500  might  be 
written  from  the  satirical  works  of  Pasquino.  A 
real  poet,  a  classical  writer,  who  looked  down  on 
the  untrammelled  wit  of  Pasquino,  took  up  the 
cudgels  on  his  behalf  with  an  undeniable  feeling 
of  comradeship.  When  one  of  Sixtus  V's  suc- 
cessors wanted  to  throw  the  satirist's  statue  into 
the  Tiber,  Torquato  Tasso  warned  him  that,  from 
the  banks,  would  rise  legions  of  frogs  to  disturb 
the  peace  of  the  city  with  their  incessant  noise. 
Marforio,  the  companion  and  adversary  of  Pas- 
quino, another  "stone  mouth,"  declared  with 
satisfaction  that  Satire  had  been  saved  by 
Poetry ! 

From  the  point  where  Sixtus'  election  is  por- 
trayed, the  reliefs  of  the  monument  in  S.  M. 
Maggiore  and  the  inscription  continue  together. 
It  might  even  seem  as  if  they  competed  to  describe 
in  the  most  compact  form  the  laborious  reign  of 
this  Pope. 

In  the  three  small  upper  spaces  are :  the  canon- 
isation of  a  Spanish  Franciscan  which  took  place 
on  the  2nd  of  July,  1588,  in  the  old  part  of  the 
basilica  of  Saint  Peter,  afterwards  destroyed  by 
Paulus  V  ;  the  crowning  of  the  Pope  on  the  steps 
of  Saint  Peter's  by  Cardinal  de'  Medici ;  and  the 


J 


Photo.  Moscioni. 

Tomb  of  Pius  V. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  47 


pacification  between  Austria  and  King  Sigismund 
of  Poland  by  the  intervention  of  Cardinal  Hip- 
polytus  Aldobrandini — later  Clemens  VIII. 

The  difference  with  the  tomb  of  Pius  V  opposite 
is  already  quite  noticeable  in  the  summit  of  the 
monument.  They  both  have  the  coronation  in  the 
centre  ;  but  while  Pius  V's  reign  is  also  represented 
by  two  battle  scenes — the  sea  battle  of  Lepanto 
and  a  land  battle  in  France — Sixtus  has  much 
more  peaceful  subjects.  The  other  panels  on  the 
tomb  of  Pius  V  are  symmetrical ;  the  Pope  giving 
a  standard  to  Marcantonio  Colonna,  the  hero  of 
Lepanto,  and  a  marshal's  baton  to  the  Count  of 
Santa  Fiore,  sent  into  France  against  Conde. 

The  whole  tomb  of  Pius  V  speaks  of  war  in 
strange  contradiction  to  the  spiritual  features  of 
the  pontiff,  represented  in  the  act  of  blessing  with 
the  rays  of  his  sanctity  behind  him. 

Sixtus  V,  in  his  heart,  must  have  admired  this 
warlike  monument.  Danger  from  the  Turks 
was  on  his  mind  even  after  the  battle  of  Lepanto, 
and  the  home  politics  of  France  interested  him 
specially,  next  to  the  fate  of  Mary  Stuart  and  the 
deeds  of  Elizabeth  .  .  .  whom  he  both  hated  and 
admired. 

These  feelings  were  reciprocated  by  Elizabeth. 
She  declared  that  the  Pope  was  the  only  man 
worthy  of  her  hand.  .  .  . 

Instead  of  Lepanto,  Sixtus  saw  his  money  sunk 
in  the  fleet  which  had  been  called  beforehand  the 


48 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Invincible  Armada.  His  activity  on  the  sea  was 
limited.  Yet  it  is  said  that  he  built  a  galley  in 
the  very  centre  of  Rome,  before  the  church  of 
San  Gerolamo,  and  always  had  some  ships  out 
to  protect  the  shores. 

His  own  monument,  instead  of  war,  shows 
works  of  peace  and  of  public  utility.  The  upper 
right-hand  panel  represents  Cardinal  Aldobrandini 
as  a  peacemaker  between  Poland  and  Austria. 
This  pacification,  which  took  place  far  away,  is 
here  represented  as  on  the  square  of  St.  John  in 
Lateran  .  .  .  with  a  full  view  of  the  new  palace 
and  the  obelisk.  The  scene  becomes  more  vivid  by 
the  presence  of  a  cavalcade  of  Cardinals. 

Not  without  reason  was  this  square  chosen. 
Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  on  his  return  to  Rome 
after  his  mission,  was  received  with  enthusiasm 
by  Sixtus  V.  After  this  visit  ad  limina,  he  spent 
the  night  in  the  monastery  of  San  Pietro  in 
Vincoli.  The  next  morning  the  Cardinals  came 
on  horseback  to  bring  him  to  the  Consistory  in 
St.  John  in  Lateran  .  .  .  thus  solemnising  at  the 
same  time  his  entry  into  the  city  after  his  mission. 

Now  we  may  venture  to  suppose  that  this  part 
of  the  monument — with  all  respect  to  Sixtus  V, 
his  peace  in  Poland  and  his  Lateran  palace — was 
made  afterwards,  when  Cardinal  Aldobrandini  was 
Pope  Clemens  VIII.  This  panel  would  then  be 
an  agreeable  souvenir,  offered  in  quite  proper  form. 

A  cavalcade  of  Cardinals  was  by  no  means  a 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL 


49 


rare  event.  Pius  IV  (1559-1565)  had  ordered 
the  Cardinals  to  come  to  the  Vatican,  not  in  car- 
riages, but  mounted,  giving  as  a  reason  that  the 
German  Emperor  Charles  V  had  much  admired 
those  cavalcades. 

The  predecessor  of  Sixtus  V,  Gregorius  XIII, 
was  a  great  horseman.  It  is  related  by  a  very 
trustworthy  witness  that,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one, 
he  could  mount  his  horse  without  the  aid  of  a 
groom.  Riding  through  Rome  and  its  surround- 
ings was  one  of  his  greatest  pleasures.  Sixtus  V 
was  a  strong  pedestrian,  and  easily  exhausted  the 
Cardinals,  who  were  quite  unable  to  keep  up  with 
him  when  he — the  expression  was  really  used  then 
— "  took  his  exercise." 

The  centre  panel  is  the  work  of  Giovanni 
Antonio  Valsoldo,  who  also  made  the  kneeling 
statue.  The  slabs  at  either  side  are  by  Egidio 
della  Riviera,1  a  sculptor  of  Flemish  birth,  but  who 
became  a  real  Roman,  like  his  contemporary 
Niccolo  d'Arras,  and,  in  the  following  century, 
Francesco  Duquesnoy. 

Under  these  panels,  on  both  sides  of  the  statue, 
we  find  two  of  a  larger  size  representing  the 
works  of  Sixtus  V.  The  one  on  his  right  hand  is 
also  by  Valsoldo  ;  the  other  by  Niccolo  d'Arras. 

The  latter  panel  is  without  doubt  the  most 
striking  of  the  whole  monument,  as  it  presents 

1  I  lately  discovered  in  a  manuscript  in  the  Brussels  Library  that 
della  Riviera's  real  name  was  van  den  Vliete. 

E 


50 


SIXTINE  ROME 


details  not  usually  seen  on  the  funereal  monument 
of  a  Pope.  In  the  middle  of  the  panel  three  or 
four  human  heads  are  seen  being  carried  around  by 
a  band  of  people  while  the  symbolical  figures  of 
Justice,  Peace,  and  Prosperity  look  on  approvingly. 

These  trunkless  heads  are  intended  as  examples 
of  the  innumerable  executions  which  took  place 
during  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V  ;  and,  more 
especially,  are  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the 
worst  brigands  who  infested  the  Roman  Cam- 
pagna  here  represented  in  the  background  of  this 
scene  of  terror.1  The  regular  flight  of  arches  of 
the  Acqua  Felice  loses  itself  in  the  horizon.  On 
the  left  we  recognise  a  part  of  the  Coliseum,  and 
recall  to  mind  the  anecdote  of  Sixtus  V,  who  went 
there  disguised  as  a  monk.  .  .  . 

On  the  opposite  side,  we  perceive  the  obelisk 
which  he  erected  before  St.  Peter's,  while  an  inter- 
mezzo of  highway  robbery  is  being  acted  in  the 
centre. 

The  symbolism  of  the  whole  is  very  intricate. 
The  artist's  scope  was  limited  to  a  few  metres. 
We  see  how  the  Pope  rendered  the  Campagna 
safe,  and  conducted  the  Acqua  Felice  through  its 
vast  area — once  the  scene  of  brigandage — combin- 
ing Justice,  Peace,  and  Prosperity,  all  in  a  mixture 
of  classical  and  contemporary  costumes. 

1  Sixtus'  war  against  the  brigands  and  the  erection  of  the  obelisk 
are  also  represented  in  one  of  the  well-known  "Tavolette  della 
Biccherna  "  in  Siena. 


Tomb  of  Sixtus  V. 


Photo.  Moscioiu. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  51 


The  brigands  —  many  of  them  outlawed  for 
political  reasons  or  for  murders  committed  in 
passion — had  been  a  standing  menace  in  the  last 
years  of  Gregorius  XIII.  Sixtus  V  was  their 
terror  from  the  very  first  days  of  his  pontificate. 
He  at  once  directed  his  energies  against  them  ;  his 
relations  with  the  different  rulers  in  Italy  were 
intended  from  the  beginning  to  obtain  the  extra- 
dition of  "  bandits."  The  word  itself  is  explained 
by  another  of  his  legislative  methods  of  internal 
government. 

A  "  bando  "  is  a  public  notification  of  any  new 
measure.  To  bring  forward  a  "  bando  "  is  called 
"  bandire."  So  a  "  bandito  "  is  a  person  against 
whom,  as  a  member  of  a  dangerous  sect,  a  public 
order  of  condemnation  has  been  printed.  Most 
travellers  in  Italy  have  observed  along  the  railroad 
a  frequent  use  of  this  verb  :  "  Bandita  la  Caccia  " 
(shooting  is  forbidden).  It  is  quite  characteristic 
that  the  number  of  "  bandi "  against  brigands  is 
still  so  great  as  to  give  them  the  name  by  which 
they  are  known  over  the  whole  world. 

The  "  bandi "  of  Sixtus  V  are  preserved  in 
Roman  libraries,  in  volumes  full  of  living  docu- 
ments about  Rome  after  the  Renaissance.  One 
"bando"  forbids  the  people  of  the  Campagna 
around  Rome — besides  the  keepers  of  houses 
and  cattle  .  .  .  and  the  population  near  the  coast, 
always  in  continuous  danger  of  corsair  invasions 
— to  carry  arms.    So  that  no  "bandito"  could 


52 


SIXTINE  ROME 


assume  the  appearance  of  an  innocent  peasant. 
Another  threatens  severe  punishment  against  those 
who  would  bring  food  to  the  banditi,  or  give  them 
shelter  ...  or  against  "  the  shoemaker  who  would 
provide  them  with  boots  without  the  permission  of 
the  local  authorities." 

By  those  and  many  other  means  he  succeeded, 
as  the  inscription  tells  us,  "  in  mastering  the  licen- 
tious crowd  of  exiled  and  abandoned  men,"  and 
"  in  restoring  public  tranquillity." 

The  other  panel  is  much  more  gentle  in  charac- 
ter. Charity  and  Munificence — beautiful  figures 
which  would  honour  the  chisel  of  Thorwaldsen — 
open  the  scene. 

Behind,  on  the  left,  is  the  "liberation  of  the 
unfortunate  who  were  detained  in  prison  for 
debts  "  ;  on  the  right,  a  pitiful  group  of  those  "  who 
went  from  house  to  house  begging  for  food,"  and 
the  house  in  which  they  were  to  be  cared  for. 

On  the  last  day  of  May,  1587,  the  beggars  of 
Rome  had  been  surprised  by  a  papal  decree,  com- 
manding them  all  to  appear,  within  eight  days, 
before  a  special  commission,  in  order  to  declare  their 
name  and  origin  and  the  reason  of  their  begging, 
and  to  go  into  the  new  poor-house. 

Sixtus  V  himself  went  to  inspect  the  hospital 
when  it  was  ready  to  receive  them,  and  gave 
orders  for  several  necessaries  which  the  Home  still 
lacked.  He  followed  the  example  of  his  pre- 
decessor, who  endeavoured  in  a  similar  way  to 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  53 


bring  together  all  the  beggars  of  Rome  in  the 
Convent  of  San  Sisto,  opposite  the  Baths  of  Cara- 
calla.  He  met  with  resistance  from  the  beggars 
themselves. 

In  order  to  impress  the  Pope,  they  tried  a 
method  which  would  seem  quite  a  modern  one. 
At  first  they  declared  that  their  numbers  amounted 
to  3000 — a  figure  far  superior  to  the  real  one ;  but 
the  preparations  were  pushed  on  all  the  same, 
though  only  850  arrived.  Nevertheless,  they 
formed  a  pitiful  procession  as  they  marched  over 
the  Capitoline  Hill  in  their  ragged  clothes,  many 
being  drawn  in  primitive  hand-carts  by  other 
paupers.  .  .  . 

Renewing  Gregorius  X Ill's  charitable  attempt, 
Sixtus  V  built  a  hospital,  and  united  all  the 
paupers  under  one  roof.  But  a  Roman  beggar 
will  be  a  free  bird  as  long  as  the  sun  shines 
over  the  seven  hills.  They  soon  afterwards  filled 
the  city  as  before,  and  turned  begging  into  a  fine 
art,  as  an  Italian  writer  has  shown  in  a  curious 
parallel  between  London  beggars  of  the  XIXth 
century  and  Roman  beggars  of  the  XVIth  cen- 
tury. 

All  this  happened  within  a  few  years. 

In  June,  1587,  when  the  opportunity  was  offered 
to  the  Roman  paupers  to  enter  their  especial  home, 
they  presented  themselves  in  thousands.  They 
were  at  once  ordered  to  go  and  to  return  in  more 
accurate  numbers,  with  the  possibility  held  out 


54 


SIXTINE  ROME 


that  many  would  be  sent  back  to  their  homesteads 
outside  Rome  with  some  recompense. 

But,  as  soon  as  the  Pope  was  dead,  the  great 
invasion  took  place,  and  Rome  was  again  flooded 
with  beggars ;  so  that  Sixtus'  second  successor, 
Gregorius  XIV  (whose  reign  began  in  the  same 
year  as  the  death  of  Sixtus),  was  obliged  to  shut 
them  up  again  in  the  hospital  of  Ponte  Sisto. 

We  have  seen  with  what  success  these  stern 
measures  were  crowned,  after  the  death  of  the 
Pope  who  knew  so  well  how  to  turn  his  words 
into  deeds ! 

In  the  middle  of  the  same  panel  is  a  graceful 
and  serious  procession  of  young  girls  presented 
with  bridal  gifts.*  The  dome  of  St.  Peter's  and 
one  of  the  obelisks  have  been  brought  into  this 
bas-relief.  They  had  to  be  placed  somewhere  in 
the  monument  to  complete  the  catalogue  of  the 
Pope's  principal  works. 

On  the  other  panel  is  the  Campagna,  its  shore 
and  sea  forming  the  background.  Those  strange 
lines  in  the  rear,  which  seem  at  the  first  glance  to 
represent  a  bridge,  are  some  of  the  papal  "  galleys." 
If  you  look  carefully  you  can  distinguish  the  masts 
and  the  riggings,  with  the  long  parallel  oars. 
The  waves  of  the  sea  are  indicated,  and,  on  the 
coastline,  a  tower  can  be  distinguished.    A  group 

1  At  several  churches  in  Rome  generous  dowries  are  still  given. 
A  letter-box  in  the  Piazza  Poli  for  the  purpose  receives  hopeful 
requests. 


THE  S1XTINE  CHAPEL  55 


of  men  dressed  in  sacks,  one  carrying  a  big  banner, 
accompany  others,  laden  with  chains,  towards  the 
city. 

A  whole  chapter  of  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V  is 
condensed  in  this  marble  picture :  a  chapter  re- 
newed from  the  reigns  of  his  predecessors  and  to 
be  repeated  after  him. 

The  tower  is  only  one  of  an  infinite  file  spread- 
ing along  the  coast  of  Italy.  Thus  you  can  see 
some  of  these  signal  stations  from  the  bridge  of 
Ariccia  and  from  the  platform  of  Albano,  towards 
the  burnished  surface  of  the  Mediterranean.  They 
had  already  attracted  the  attention  of  the  French 
philosopher  Montaigne,  who  visited  Italy  for  his 
health  in  the  years  1580  and  1581.  His  travels 
have  been  published  by  the  Italian  scholar 
d'Ancona,  in  an  edition  which  is  a  real  model  of 
its  kind. 

Referring  to  Ostia,  Montaigne  relates  that 
they  lunched  in  picnic  fashion  near  the  fortress 
— as  tourists  do  now  when  visiting  that  ancient 
place  and  that  remarkable  stone  pile.  The 
French  essayist  was  surely  familiar  with  this 
style  of  architecture,  for  military  construction 
had  attracted  him  from  his  earliest  youth. 

Warning  of  an  invasion  of  barbarians  could 
reach  Rome  "in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye."  In 
Ancona,  he  heard  a  cannon  shot  from  "beyond 
the  Abruzzi,"  from  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

Towers  rise  at  one  mile's  distance  from  each 


56 


SIXTINE  ROME 


other.  The  first  one  to  discover  a  corsair  ship 
sends  a  fire  signal  to  the  next  watch-tower  so 
quickly  that  the  warning  has  been  known  to  run 
in  one  hour  from  the  end  of  Italy  to  Venice. 
This  wireless  telegraphy  was  worked  with  fires, 
flags,  smoke,  or  cannon  shots.  The  effect  was 
fairly  good.  In  one  and  the  same  day,  for 
instance,  the  news  of  Sixtus  V's  election  was 
carried  from  Rome  to  Florence. 

The  banner  carried  before  the  band  of  prisoners 
in  the  monument  is  that  of  the  "  Gonfalone,"  a 
pious  society,  which  begged  for  money  in  order  to 
help  freed  slaves,  and  was  the  only  body  allowed 
by  Sixtus  to  collect  for  charity.  The  little  group 
here  is  in  sculptural  art  what  the  chorus  is  in  the 
opera.  They  represent  in  a  small  proportion  one 
of  the  solemnities  which  moved  Rome — and  in  the 
first  place  the  stern  Pope  himself — very  nearly  to 
tears.  .  .  . 

One  day  a  procession  of  two  hundred  men  and 
women,  who  had  been  slaves  in  Algiers,  were 
brought  to  Rome  by  the  "  Sodalita  del  Gon- 
falone." Some  of  them  had  been  forty  years  in 
that  condition  without  losing  their  faith  !  To  free 
them  had  cost  20,000  scudi ! 

The  Turkish  peril  drew  the  Pope  into  unusual 
diplomatic  relations.  The  subject  was  brought 
forward  by  Sixtus  to  the  Cardinals  in  the  Con- 
sistory, the  Pope  addressing  the  princes  of  the 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  57 


Church  at  those  sessions  of  the  supreme  council,  in 
an  elegant  speech,  as  was  usual. 

He  announced,  according  to  the  regular  report 
(in  a  manuscript  from  the  former  library  of  the 
Barberini  family,  now  in  the  Vatican),  that  at  the 
beginning  of  his  pontificate,  1585,  he  had  sent 
letters  to  the  Shah  of  Persia  at  a  time  when 
Persia  was  at  war  with  Turkey,  a  war  surely 
unjust  on  the  Turkish  side. 

The  answer  to  these  letters  had  come — the 
Consistory  took  place  on  June  26,  1589 — and 
two  versions  of  the  answer  were  read,  one  by 
Giovanni  Battista  Vecchietti,  the  other  one  by 
Paolo  Orsini  and  a  bishop  in  partibm  iiifidelium. 

Nevertheless,  a  "  menante  "  of  the  time  repeats 
this  story  under  the  date  of  June  28.  He  had 
heard  of  the  secret,  but  places  the  mission  to 
Persia  as  beginning  under  Sixtus'  predecessor, 
Gregorius  XIII  .  .  .  alleging  that  "the  Pope  had 
asked  the  Shah  to  accept  his  Gregorian  Calendar." 

Besides,  he  gives  his  own  version  regarding  the 
alliance  which  the  Persian  ruler  had  proposed 
against  the  Turks.  I  infer  that  two  different 
missions  have  been  thus  confused  with  each  other. 
These  indiscretions  must  have  come  to  the  ear  of 
the  Pope,  for,  at  the  following  Consistory  on 
July  17,  he  complains  "that  the  secret  had  not 
been  kept." 

Sixtus  V  had,  like  all  great  sovereigns,  an  eye 


58 


SIXTINE  ROME 


to  the  development  of  his  sea-power.  After  insti- 
tuting a  special  commission  of  Cardinals  for  naval 
affairs,  he  desired  to  see  for  himself  how  the  coast 
was  protected. 

A  real  man  of  action,  he  went  in  person  from 
Rome  to  Civitavecchia,  negotiating  at  the  same 
time  other  weighty  matters. 

We  may  suppose  that  these  and  other  travels  of 
the  pontiff*  disturbed  the  peaceful  lives  of  a  multi- 
tude of  persons,  who  already  protested  in  their 
hearts  against  the  unaccountable  innovations  and 
sudden  surprises  of  their  ruler. 

We  may  be  even  more  certain  that  this  did  not 
in  the  least  trouble  the  energetic  disciple  of  the 
biblical  Prophet.  He  would  have  led  the  purpled 
council  through  the  Red  Sea  if  necessary. 

They  had  to  be  ready  to  leave  the  city  at  a 
moment's  notice,  even  without  making  the  Vatican 
Court  aware  of  the  papal  journey. 

More  than  once  Sixtus  went  to  Zagarolo  to 
study  the  water  supply  of  his  Acqua  Felice.  He 
was  not  at  all  romantic  about  his  enterprise. 
When  his  sister  Camilla,  and  his  cousin  the  young 
Governor  Michele  Peretti,  heard  that  the  water 
had  arrived  a  few  miles  from  the  city,  they 
hastened  to  the  spot  and  brought  a  bottle  of  the 
costly  liquid  to  the  Pope.  But  he  declined  it, 
saying  that  "  it  had  no  taste." 

As  to  its  flavour,  the  famous  Pope  was  right. 
The  history  of  the  water  supply  of  Rome  has 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  59 


shown  it  only  too  clearly,  the  Acqua  Felice,  beau- 
tiful for  show  on  several  fountains,  is  the  least 
used  of  all  the  different  kinds  which  adorn  Rome 
and  quench  its  thirst. 

On  his  travels  to  Zagarolo — a  little  town  on 
the  way  to  Naples — he  exhibited  at  the  same 
time  his  good  will  and  his  bad  temper,  as  shown 
on  the  following  occasion :  the  convoy  had  rested 
in  the  middle  of  the  Campagna,  where  a  pavilion 
was  quickly  raised  and  lunch  spread.  The  Pope 
joked  merrily  about  the  brigands,  not  without 
the  intention  of  teasing  the  Cardinals,  saying, 
"  If  such  or  such  a  brigand  were  to  come  now  ..." 
proud  that  he  could  bring  forward  the  supposition 
safely,  these  criminals  having  ended  their  lives 
on  the  scaffold.  Cardinal  Colonna,  who  had 
sold  his  ground,  with  the  sources  of  the  Acqua 
Felice,  to  the  Pope,  and  who  was  to  entertain 
the  company  in  his  palace  at  Zagarolo,  started 
an  address  to  the  party,  declaring  "how  much 
he  was  favoured  ..." 

But  Sixtus,  his  mood  already  changed,  cut  him 
short :  "  It  remains  to  be  seen  who  will  be  the 
favoured  one."  The  Cardinal  did  not  heed  the 
warning,  and  complacently  continued  his  speech,  ex- 
pressing his  zeal  for  the  Holy  See  and  his  readiness 
to  sacrifice  anything  to  subdue  the  Turks.  In  the 
middle  of  his  oration  he  was  stopped  by  a  "Basta  !" 
(enough)  from  the  Pope,  who  shared  with  most  good 
speakers  a  strong  dislike  for  the  useless  talk  of  others. 


60 


SIXTINE  ROME 


The  French  Cardinal  Joyeuse,  for  instance,  was 
once  severely  snubbed  at  a  meeting  of  the  Con- 
sistory, just  for  speaking  before  he  was  called  upon 
to  do  so. 

Of  the  journey  to  Civitavecchia,  an  account  has 
been  preserved  in  a  manuscript  of  the  Vatican 
Library.  The  author,  Guido  Gualterio  Sangenesio 
— who  wrote  the  biography  of  Sixtus  V — accom- 
panied him  on  this  journey,  and  used  his  best 
efforts  to  describe  it  in  noble  form,  with  a  fair 
amount  of  anecdote. 

Alaleone,  master  of  ceremonies,  was  not  taken 
on  this  journey,  and  makes  a  note  of  it  in  his 
regular  account  of  the  official  movements  of  the 
Pontiff,  declaring  that  he  did  not  go,  as  he  was  not 
invited,  and  adding  peevishly  "  that  he  did  not  even 
know  what  may  have  happened  on  that  occasion." 

But  History  lost  nothing,  and  Literature  was 
the  gainer  by  the  fact  that  Sangenesio  and  not 
Alaleone  has  bequeathed  this  story  to  us,  though 
the  latter's  manuscript  in  the  Vatican  Archives 
contains  many  interesting  facts. 

The  Pope,  on  his  way  towards  Civitavecchia, 
began  his  journey  by  spending  the  night  in  the 
country  house  of  Pius  V — a  short  distance  from 
Rome,  along  the  Via  Aurelia — the  road  he  would 
have  to  travel  by. 

The  next  morning,  at  dawn,  his  suite  of  Cardinals 
and  city  notables  joined  him,  early  rising  being 
the  rule  for  the  travellers. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  61 


On  the  first  day,  the  convoy  reached  Palo,  halting 
at  a  feudal  castle,  still  to  be  seen  from  the  railroad 
on  the  route  from  Genoa  to  Rome — the  property 
of  the  munificent  Cardinal  Farnese. 

Careful  preparations  had  been  made  beforehand 
by  order  of  the  Cardinal,  who  frequently  offered 
splendid  hospitality  to  distinguished  guests,  whom 
he  entertained  for  the  night  on  their  way  from 
Civitavecchia,  the  port  of  Rome,  where  travellers 
from  Spain  and  France  landed. 

The  whole  castle  was  adorned  and  rooms  pre- 
pared for  every  one,  a  name  over  each  door ;  the 
Pope's  room  richly  hung  in  white  silk.  After 
the  guests  had  expressed  their  appreciation  of  the 
welcome  offered  them,  an  excellent  fish  dinner  was 
served. 

However,  in  spite  of  all  these  preparations,  the 
visit  was  not  a  success.  For  the  whole  suite  of 
coachmen,  soldiers,  etc.,  were  left  to  sleep  outside 
in  the  open,  as  well  as  the  horses  and  mules,  and  the 
noise  they  made  interfered  with  the  night's  rest. 

The  journey  was  resumed  the  next  morning 
before  dawn,  lighted  lanterns  being  necessary  for 
the  first  hour  or  two. 

After  lunch  at  Santa  Severa,  a  monastery  on  the 
coast,  four  of  the  papal  galleys  performed  some 
evolutions  to  the  accompaniment  of  blowing 
trumpets  and  the  thunder  of  their  guns,  grim 
faces  bending  over  the  oars,  and  desperate  hands 
clutching  them,  as  they  swept  the  waters  of  the 


62 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Mediterranean.  Not  only  rough  hands  of  real 
gallows-birds,  but  also  more  delicate  ones,  so  skilful 
at  calligraphy  that  they  could  produce  masterly 
imitations  of  the  signature  of  others. 

Not  a  few  of  those  human  propellers,  chained  to 
their  hard  labour,  must  have  recognised  as  their 
floating  prison  drew  near  to  the  shore,  the  faces 
of  men  with  whom  they  had  had  intercourse  in 
days  gone  by. 

They  had  come  the  same  old  road  after  a  trial 
which  had  kept  them  for  months  and  years  in  the 
dread  of  a  death  sentence.  They  had  been  thank- 
ful then  that  their  life  was  spared  .  .  .  they  wished 
now  that  justice  had  been  pitiless. 

The  Pope  declined  the  invitation  to  continue 
the  journey  by  sea.  Perhaps  he  consulted  one  of 
his  physicians,  Antonio  Porto,  who  was  one  of  the 
party ;  but  we  have  no  proof  of  this.  He  was  not 
averse  to  medical  advice ;  having  been  cautioned 
not  to  have  a  siesta  after  lunch,  he  used  to  spend 
an  hour  listening  to  the  reading  of  some  edifying 
book  instead  of  sleeping. 

On  being  pressed  to  sail,  he  answered  that  it 
would  not  be  consistent  with  pontifical  decorum, 
and  that  a  sea-voyage,  especially  for  a  Pope,  should 
only  be  undertaken  in  case  of  utmost  necessity. 

However,  he  allowed  four  of  the  Cardinals — 
one  of  them  his  own  relative,  Montalto — to  take 
the  sea-route.  They  arrived  in  Civitavecchia 
before  he  did. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  63 


The  journey  by  land  was  difficult,  and,  from 
what  Galesino  tells  us,  all  the  travellers  regretted 
that  they  had  not  taken  the  shorter  and  smoother 
route  over  the  water.  The  Pope  was  very  tired 
when  he  at  last  arrived  at  Civitavecchia ;  but  it 
did  not  prevent  him  from  enjoying  the  fireworks 
and  illuminations,  the  whole  nocturnal  festival 
being  described  as  a  brilliant  one.  Even  the 
cannonading  from  sea  and  land,  which  "  made  the 
whole  of  Civitavecchia  tremble,"  is  mentioned  in 
Galesino's  account. 

The  next  day  was  given  up  to  work,  Sixtus 
having  brought  with  him  some  architects  who  had 
to  study  the  harbour.  He  desired  to  make  of 
Civitavecchia  a  military  seaport. 

This  had  already  been  suggested  by  classical 
writers  (Plinius),  and  the  object  of  his  inspection 
was  the  reconstruction  of  the  port  after  the  ancient 
plan. 

One  of  the  Pope's  intentions  was  to  bring  water 
to  Civitavecchia  to  supply  the  city  itself  and  also 
the  fleet. 

After  he  had  read  and  answered  his  correspon- 
dence, brought  from  Rome  by  special  couriers,  he 
gave  orders  to  start  for  the  mountains  of  la  Tolfa, 
a  range  famous  at  one  time  for  its  production 
of  alum,  and  containing  the  only  available  water- 
springs  in  that  part  of  his  estates. 

He  was  entertained  on  his  arrival  by  a  some- 
what original  concert.   The  operation  of  extracting 


64 


SIXTINE  ROME 


alum  necessitated  the  use  of  enormous  boilers, 
which,  to  welcome  the  Pope,  were  hammered  on 
by  the  workmen,  the  valleys  resounding  with  the 
noise,  "each  boiler  making  a  sound  louder  than 
that  of  the  largest  bell." 

The  Pope  visited  the  alum  quarries  and  admired 
the  skill  with  which  the  workmen  executed  their 
difficult  manipulations  on  high,  narrow  ledges  of 
rock. 

Here  again  the  reception  was  in  the  best  style 
of  the  time.  A  fountain  poured  forth  wine  for 
everybody ;  "  and  not  only  for  the  Swiss  guard," 
humorously  adds  our  author.  It  is  mentioned  on 
other  occasions  that  a  good  drink  was  given  to  the 
same  corps  when  the  Pope  dined  out. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  use  already  made  of 
the  mutilated  German  word  "trink,"  now  still 
used  by  the  Roman  population  to  describe  copi- 
ous libations. 

After  dinner  he  listened  from  the  balcony  to 
the  improvised  songs  of  the  country  people,  who, 
accompanied  by  instruments,  sang  the  praises  of 
the  Pope  and  Cardinals.  The  next  day  they  started 
on  their  way  back  to  Rome  via  Bracciano. 

Every  day  during  the  whole  of  the  journey 
Sixtus  heard  the  mass,  read  his  breviary,  attended 
to  current  affairs  as  they  reached  him  from  Rome, 
and  received  an  infinite  number  of  visitors. 

Galesino  gives  us  a  poetical  description  of  the 
Pope's  triumphal  progress  in  the  glorious  Italian 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  65 


springtime — old  people  with  trembling  steps 
coming  out  of  their  cottages  to  see  His  Holiness 
pass  by ;  children  running  to  scatter  flowers  before 
him,  mothers  with  babes  in  their  arms  crowding  in 
his  path  ...  to  all  he  gave  alms  and  blessings, 
and  they  rejoiced  to  think  that,  for  once  in  their 
lives,  they  had  seen  the  Pope  face  to  face. 

On  his  return  to  Rome  the  Pope  ordered  the 
restoration  of  all  the  watch-towers  along  the  coast, 
attended  to  the  needs  of  the  growing  fleet,  and 
busied  himself  about  the  aqueduct  for  Civitavecchia. 
And  in  November  of  the  same  year  (1588)  he  went 
again  to  inspect  the  fleet  and  the  waterworks. 

During  the  following  year  he  undertook  another 
important  journey  connected  with  harbour  works 
and  with  the  improvement  of  the  land  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  Rome. 

The  idea  of  draining  the  Pontine  marshes  was 
suggested  to  the  Pope  by  an  engineer  from  Urbino, 
who  urged  that  the  ground  would  then  produce 
all  the  wheat  necessary  for  Rome,  and  the  air  of 
the  Roman  Campagna  would  at  once  become 
noticeably  purer.  The  thought  of  utilising  the 
old  Via  Appia  as  far  as  Gaeta  arose  at  the  same 
time.  The  Pontine  marshes  had  already  been 
improved  by  a  canal  still  called  the  Fiume  Sisto, 
which  had  cost  90,000  scudi ;  the  effect  at  the  first 
moment  seemed  very  successful,  for  the  ground 
was  actually  drained,  and  the  labours  of  Boniface 
VIII,  Martin  V,  and  Leo  X  seemed  completed. 

F 


66 


SIXTINE  ROME 


But  even  though  another  great  work,  following 
the  direction  of  the  Via  Appia,  was  undertaken 
by  Pius  VI,  the  Pontine  marshes,  like  the  Roman 
Campagna,  still  await  their  ultimate  redemp- 
tion. .  .  . 

The  Pope's  journey  over  the  Via  Appia  led 
through  the  whole  length  of  marshes  to  Terracina, 
where  he  intended  to  dig  a  good  harbour,  as  he 
also  desired  to  do  with  Old  Antium,  then  called 
Porto  di  Ansa,  and  now  Porto  dAnzio. 

Sixtus  V  and  his  suite  left  Rome  for  Terracina 
on  the  11th  of  October,  1589.  The  date  means 
much  to  those  who  know  the  length  of  the  hot 
Roman  summer  and  the  delight  of  the  first  re- 
freshing days  which  may  be  expected  in  the  month 
of  October.  In  that  year  October  must  have 
been  exceptionally  cool,  for  Sixtus  declared  to  the 
Cardinals,  when  they  met  after  his  return,  that 
the  weather  had  not  been  like  summer  nor 
autumn,  but  really  like  winter. 

Five  Cardinals  accompanied  him,  Alessandro 
Montalto  again  being  one  of  them.  Including  the 
guards  and  entire  suite,  the  expedition  must  have 
numbered  a  thousand. 

The  Viceroy  of  Naples,  hearing  of  their  ap- 
proach, at  once  sent  his  son — a  boy  of  ten — with 
two  ships  and  many  nobles  to  Terracina. 

The  next  day,  after  attending  mass,  the  Pope 
came  to  the  public  square,  where  "  refreshments  " 
had  been  prepared. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  67 


The  expression  hardly  seems  adequate,  for  the 
"  refreshments  "  had  cost  15,000  scudi,  and  con- 
sisted in  100  cows,  100  pigs,  100  of  each  kind  of 
birds  and  game  in  season ;  mountains  of  sweets 
of  quaint  Neapolitan  names  and  shapes,  precious 
wines,  a  "  studiolo  "  1  of  ebony,  inlaid  with  gold, 
containing  gloves,  amber,  musk  and  other  per- 
fumes. 

Sixtus  afterwards  gave  a  report  of  his  journey 
to  the  Consistory.  He  supposed  that  the  ex- 
penses for  the  development  of  the  harbours  would 
be  rather  high,  but  declared  that,  even  should  they 
amount  to  thousands  of  scudi,  the  work  should 
be  undertaken.  He  regretted  that  the  two  sea- 
ports, Terracina  and  Anzio,  were  so  far  from  the 
city  and  other  inhabited  places. 

The  draining  of  the  Pontine  marshes  was 
only  one  chapter  in  a  series  of  public  works 
which  this  energetic  and  far-seeing  ruler  had  in 
his  mind. 

Even  if  we  consider  but  one  part  of  what 
journalists  of  his  time  ascribed  to  his  credit,  there 
remains  enough  to  form  a  programme  suitable  to 
our  own  times.  Indeed,  what  now  appears  to 
modern  intellects  as  desirable  innovations  in  the 
Italian  capital,  was  in  the  five  years  of  Sixtus  V's 
reign  the  subject  of  public  discussion,  and  the  chief 

1  A  cabinet,  of  which  certain  beautiful  examples  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Roman  Art  Galleries — for  instance,  in  the  Palazzo  Colonna  and 
in  the  Capitoline  Gallery. 


68 


SIXTINE  ROME 


topic  of  the  Pope's  conversation  with  engineers  and 
architects. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  Palace  of  Justice  in  the 
old  Via  Giulia,  where  the  foundations  of  an 
immense  building  were  left,  and  are  still  to  be 
found.  The  original  idea  belonged  to  the  time  of 
Julius  II. 

A  drawing  in  the  Uffizi  in  Florence  shows  what 
was  intended  :  a  building  ninety-seven  metres  in 
length,  including  a  church,  and  designed  to  hold 
all  the  courts  of  justice  in  Rome. 

According  to  the  AvvisL  Sixtus  was  anxious  to 
demolish  the  old  structure.  It  is  fortunate  that 
he  left  the  foundations  in  peace,  and  did  not 
disturb  the  mysterious  harmony  of  that  most 
suggestive  street  of  Rome  with  some  enormous 
courts  of  justice. 

Another  instance  of  his  modern  ideas  was  the 
proposed  destruction  of  the  Arco  di  Portogallo, 
near  the  Palazzo  Piano,  in  order  to  open  a  fine 
view  of  the  Corso. 

"  Roma-al-mare  "  (Rome  by  the  sea),  a  current 
expression  in  our  days,  and  suggestive  of  new 
developments  for  the  capital,  must  have  been 
present  before  the  fancy  of  the  Pope,  whose 
thoughts  were  ever  bent  on  building  and  tracing 
plans. 

He  spoke  of  a  waterway  for  his  galleys  between 
Rome  and  the  sea  by  means  of  a  new  bed  of  the 
Tiber.    Only  the  remark  made  before  him,  that 


Photo.  Mosaoni. 

Rudiments  of  the  projected  Palazzo  di  Giustizia. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  69 


this  would  open  an  easy  road  to  the  Turks  to 
come  to  "  travagliare  "l  turned  him  from  this 
plan. 

It  was  said  that  he  had  the  intention  of  making 
Castel  St.  Angelo  an  island  in  the  city  by  leading 
a  branch  of  the  river  behind  it.  This  was  most 
probably  meant  as  a  rather  superfluous  protective 
measure  for  this  huge  depository  of  his  treasures. 

Rome  had  been  afflicted  by  an  overflow  of  the 
river  in  November,  1589.  Prisoners  were  drowned 
in  the  Tor  di  Nona,  and  the  water  came  far  into 
the  city,  to  the  Prati  del  Castello  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Tiber,  where  great  damage  was  done.  The 
Borgo  was  flooded,  so  that  the  Cardinals  going 
to  and  from  the  Vatican  had  to  pass  through  the 
long  corridor  connecting  the  palace  with  Castel 
St.  Angelo,  which  still  connects  these  two  famous 
structures. 

At  that  time  the  Pope  is  said  to  have  projected 
a  plan  which  would  really  have  placed  the  Castle 
and  the  palace  on  a  large  island.  The  Tiber  should 
be  divided  at  Ponte  Molle,  on  the  Via  Flaminia,  the 
first  bridge  above  Rome  ;  one  arm  should  pass 
through  the  valley  behind  the  Vatican,  already  then 
called  the  "  Valle  dell'  Inferno,"  from  the  baking 
furnaces  of  the  lime  quarries  where  the  well-known 
Roman  tiles  and  bricks  are  still  manufactured. 

This  plan  did  not  come  to  any  concrete  form  ; 

1  Literally  f*  to  work,"  but,  when  used  for  pirates  and  brigands,  to 
be  understood  in  the  special  sense  of  pillage  and  rapine. 


70 


SIXTINE  ROME 


while  another,  seemingly  much  more  arduous, 
received  the  honour  of  a  papal  brief.  It  concerns 
nothing  less  than  the  proposal  of  a  Perugian 
engineer  to  open  a  canal  from  Tivoli  to  the 
square  of  Diocletian's  Baths,  the  object  being 
to  bring  wood  and  stone  to  Rome  by  the  new 
waterway. 

The  quarries  behind  Tivoli  are  still  in  use  ;  the 
canal  has  never  been  made.  The  idea  seems  fan- 
tastic in  its  difficulty,  but  this  Pope  treated  water 
and  stone  with  the  ease  of  a  Roman  Emperor.  It 
has  been  said  quite  recently  when  a  plan  for  new 
streets  in  Rome  was  discussed,  that  Sixtus  V  had 
already  proposed  a  direct  road  from  the  Piazza  del 
Popolo  to  St.  John  in  Lateran.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, that  such  a  street  would  have  interfered  with 
his  erection  of  the  Quirinal  Palace,  along  the 
present  Via  del  Quirinale. 

The  geography  of  that  hill,  under  Grego- 
rius  XIII  (1572-1585),  is  clearly  indicated  on  a 
beautiful  map  of  Rome  published  last  year  by  the 
Prefect  of  the  Vatican  Library,  Padre  Ehrle,  S.J.1 

He  discovered  this  map — executed  in  1577  by  a 
French  artist,  Etienne  du  Perac — in  the  library  of 
the  British  Museum.  The  reproduction  is  excel- 
lent, much  better  than  those  of  the  mediaeval 
maps  of  Rome  published  by  de  Rossi,  and  known 
as  his  ' '  Atlante  "  ;  or  the  portfolio  of  reproductions 

1  See  a  note  in  the  American  Historical  Review,  October,  1909,,  by 
J.  A.  F.  Orbaan. 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  71 


of  maps  of  Rome  belonging  to  Colonel  Rocchi's 
work  about  the  city  fortifications. 

On  the  map  of  Rome,  "before  Sixtus  V,"  as 
Padre  Ehrle  states  on  the  title  of  his  book  in 
order  to  be  at  once  understood  by  connoisseurs, 
the  Quirinal  is  still  called  by  the  Latin  denomina- 
tion, which  corresponds  to  the  more  familiar  name 
of  "  Villa  d'Este."  The  fact  that  in  those  times 
there  were  two  Villas,  each  of  them  called  Villa 
d'Este — one  in  Tivoli  and  one  in  Rome — might 
easily  bring  confusion. 

From  the  line  on  the  map  the  road  might  have 
passed  behind  the  palace,  the  Viminalis  and  the 
Quirinalis,  forming  an  ordinary  up-and-down 
Roman  road  between  the  two  churches  .  .  .  not 
without  profit  to  the  devout  pilgrim,  whose 
thoughts  would  not  be  hurried  by  his  steps. 

The  new  street  would  have  crossed  the  old  Alta 
Semita,  later  Via  Pia,  now  Via  Venti  Settembre 
and  Via  del  Quirinale.  The  Pope's  mind  appears 
to  have  been  bent  upon  connecting  the  life  of 
Rome  with  the  mountain  quarters,  according 
to  his  programme  on  Porta  Furba. 

At  the  end  of  1588  it  was  rumoured  in  the 
town  that  the  Carnival  races  of  next  year, 
instead  of  being  run  on  the  Corso,  would  take 
place  from  the  Porta  Pia  to  "  Montecavallo " 
(the  square  before  the  Quirinal,  arranged  also  by 
Sixtus  V). 

The  whole  length  of  the  street,  with  a  splendid 


72 


SIXTINE  ROME 


view  of  the  Esedra  (the  semicircular  space  before 
the  Diocletian  Baths,  expensively  laid  out  as  a 
garden  by  Cardinal  du  Bellay)  is  to  be  seen  in 
contemporary  frescoes  in  the  Lateran  Palace,  in 
which  the  works  of  Sixtus  V  are  represented. 

Among  the  plans,  which  he  had  not  time  to 
execute,  was  the  erection  of  an  obelisk  near  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce,  and  two  obelisks  on  Piazza 
Navona.  He  lent  a  willing  ear  to  an  architect 
who  proposed  to  use  the  obelisks  as  sundials. 
The  hours  should  be  indicated,  and  also  the 
directions  of  the  winds,  by  lines  on  the  pavement 
squares.  A  part  of  this  proposal  has  been  carried 
out  in  the  square  in  front  of  St.  Peter's. 

Inventors  of  all  kinds  crowded  round  the  enter- 
prising Pope.  One  had  found  the  "perpetuum 
mobile,"  another  a  special  kind  of  bottle — most 
probably  the  measures  yet  in  use  in  the  Roman 
inns.  Another  found  what  seemed  yet  more 
wonderful,  a  certain  yeast  which  made  a  loaf  of 
bread  larger  without  altering  the  quality  and 
weight ! 

We  are  not  surprised  to  read  that  somebody 
had  found  the  secret  of  making  gold,  eagerly 
sought  for  in  Florence  by  Francesco  de' Medici, 
who  had  a  special  laboratory  for  this  lucrative 
purpose.  .  .  . 

Sixtus  V's  many  ideas  alarmed  the  citizens  of 
Rome.  A  note  douloureuse  of  the  time  ex- 
presses their  feeling  well:  "...  Those  poles, 


THE  SIXTINE  CHAPEL  73 


placed  throughout  the  city  in  straight  lines  across 
vineyards  and  gardens,  bring  fear  to  the  souls  of 
many  interested  persons  who  are  not  unaware 
that,  in  order  to  make  a  road  without  turnings, 
many  a  neck  has  to  be  twisted.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  gives  great  public  ornament." 

The  Pope  looked  upon  it  from  the  latter  point 
of  view,  and  generally  visited  some  of  his  works 
of  "  public  ornament "  in  construction,  on  Sundays 
after  mass. 

One  Sunday,  notwithstanding  the  variability  of 
sun  and  wind,  he  went  from  the  Trinita  de'  Monti 
through  many  of  his  new  streets.  After  his  walk 
he  returned  to  the  Vatican  in  his  litter  through 
the  Via  Condotti.  In  June,  158G,  he  was  able  to 
take  his  Sunday  walk  over  the  Piazza  delle  Terme 
Diocletiane,  having  heard  the  mass  in  Santa  Maria 
degli  Angeli.  He  inspected  the  ancient  walls  and 
houses  as  they  were  being  demolished. 

Another  Sunday,  in  September  of  a  later  year, 
he  goes  after  mass  in  Santa  Croce  to  St.  John 
in  Lateran,  to  see  the  obelisk  standing  free  from 
any  cover  and  scaffold ;  he  admired  how  ingeni- 
ously Domenico  Fontana  had  hidden  the  lines 
where  the  different  pieces  joined.  The  next 
Sunday  he  went  to  Piazza  del  Popolo,  where  he 
also  desired  to  see  an  obelisk  and  a  road.  Soon 
afterwards  he  went  to  Cerchi,  the  Circus  Maximus, 
behind  the  Palatine,  to  look  at  the  obelisk  destined 
for  Piazza  del  Popolo,  and  which  contained  the 


74  SIXTINE  ROME 

best-preserved  Egyptian  inscription.  Domenico 
Fontana,  in  his  illustrated  work  about  his  con- 
structions, has  given  these  hieroglyphics  in  special 
detail,  expressing  a  hope  that  these  very  clear 
figures  might  give  some  clue  to  a  language  which 
was  still  enigmatical  in  his  time. 


Ill 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY 


WHOLE  book  might  be  written  about  the 


Vatican  Palace  and  the  treasures,  unknown 
to  tourists,  which  it  contains.  But  such  a  book 
should  be  rewritten  frequently,  as  the  terra  in- 
cognita in  that  great  domain  changes.  Under 
Leo  XIII,  extensive  dominions  were  opened 
to  students,  and  visitors  were  admitted  to  the 
Borgia  apartments. 

Soon  after  Pius  X  had  assumed  the  pontificate, 
these  apartments  were  given  up  to  his  Secretary 
of  State  or  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  the 
opportunities  of  visiting  this  part  of  the  palace 
became  very  rare. 

Now  the  Borgia  apartments  are  again  included 
in  the  general  tour  through  the  Vatican ;  but  the 
entrance  by  the  Bronze  Gate  is  reinstated  as  the 
real  palace  entry.  Visitors  no  longer  pass  along 
the  Scala  Regia  ! 

On  the  other  hand,  passages  through  parts 
of  the  Vatican  built  by  Gregorius  XIII  have 
again  been  opened  to  the  public. 

The  Galleria  delle  Carte  Geograflche  deserves 


75 


76 


SIXTINE  ROME 


more  consideration  than  as  a  mere  corridor  from 
the  Arazzi  to  the  Stanze  of  Raphael.  Its 
immense  maps  are  ornamented  at  the  foot  by 
landscapes — painted  by  Bril,  I  believe — and  well 
worth  studying. 

The  reader  of  the  preceding  chapter  may  give 
a  glance  to  the  specimens  of  Italian  ships  sailing  in 
the  azure  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  seek  for  the 
itineraries  of  Sixtus  V's  travels. 

The  maps  have  been  restored  by  Urbanus  VIII, 
as  can  be  seen  in  many  places  by  the  inferior 
style  of  the  additions,  and  in  the  pictures  of 
Rome,  where,  for  instance,  Santa  Maria  Maggiore 
already  contains  the  chapel  of  Paulus  V.  It  is 
some  years  since  anybody  has  been  admitted  to 
the  former  Vatican  Observatory,  also  one  of 
Gregorius  XIII's  buildings.  We  might  have 
guessed  that  this  was  instituted  by  this  Pope,  so 
devoted  to  the  study  of  geography,  and  who 
introduced  the  calendar  bearing  his  name. 

The  instruments  have  been  carried  to  the 
observatories  in  the  garden,  and  even  the  charac- 
teristic little  dome  has  been  removed  from  the 
square  tower.  It  now  looks  like  a  mere  pigeon- 
house  on  the  roof ;  but  whoever  took  the  trouble, 
in  times  when  the  entrance  was  yet  open,  to  climb 
up  the  narrow  spiral  staircase,  was  rewarded  by 
finding  lofty  rooms  and  a  library  decorated  with 
frescoes.  One  fresco  represents  Rome,  seen  from 
the  windows  of  the  tower,  in  the  days  of  Gregorius 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  77 


XIII.  The  former  "  Specola  "  is  now  about  to  be 
entirely  invaded  by  the  Vatican  Archives. 

One  of  the  chapters  of  the  book  could  be  called  : 
The  unknown  entrances  and  passageways  of  the 
Vatican.  There  is,  for  instance,  the  gate  from 
the  Via  di  Porta  Angelica — a  long,  gently  ascend- 
ing road  which  might  lead  towards  a  citadel. 

A  gate  of  square  blocks  opens  in  the  solid 
foundation  wall — a  wall  which  is  an  enormous  sub- 
construction,  connecting  two  high  points  of  the 
Vatican  hill.  An  inscription  in  beautiful  marble 
letters  inlaid  in  the  brick,  dating  from  Julius  II, 
runs  along  the  wall  above  this  opening. 

Passing  under  the  vault,  you  find  yourself  at 
once  in  the  Cortile  del  Belvedere,  its  grasses 
nourished  by  the  moisture  of  a  fountain.  I  am 
sure  that  doors  and  winding  staircases  are  con- 
cealed here,  hidden  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls. 

But  here  is  the  broad  road  through  the  Vatican. 
An  inclined  plane  leads  up  to  the  higher  regions, 
illumined  by  the  large  peepholes  of  real  fortress 
walls.  A  mysterious  light  trembles  under  the 
vaults.  The  silence  is  only  broken  by  some 
massive  carriage,  passing  above  towards  the  inner 
courts  of  the  Vatican. 

Soon  you  come  out  of  the  rear  entrance  of  the 
Cortile  della  Sentinella,  having  crossed  the  Palace 
in  its  narrowest  width.  From  that  gate  the  road 
enters  the  Vatican  on  a  level,  through  the 
Cortile  del  Papagallo  ...  to   the  Cortile  di 


78 


SIXTINE  ROME 


San  Damaso,  the  principal  square  in  the  city  of 
the  Vatican. 

Several  royal  staircases  go  up  and  down  from 
this  courtyard,  but  there  is  also  a  domestic  one, 
a  sort  of  servants'  stairway,  ending  in  an  amusing 
way  behind  the  pedestal  of  a  statue.  You  might 
pass  many  times  by  this  statue  without  observing 
the  existence  of  a  staircase.  But  this  often 
happens  to  the  traveller  in  Italy,  where  many 
lovely  details  escape  him,  lost  as  he  is  in  the 
overwhelming  power  of  great  impressions. 

Every  visitor  to  Rome  regrets  that  so  small 
a  part  of  the  Vatican  is  shown.  In  order  to  study 
its  complexity  it  is  necessary  to  walk  all  around 
it,  and  especially  to  ascend  the  road  which  sur- 
rounds the  entire  wall  enclosing  the  Vatican 
gardens,  at  the  side  and  at  the  rear. 

Then  spend  a  morning  in  the  Museum,  and  look 
out  of  all  the  open  windows,  even  in  the  corridors 
connecting  the  different  rooms.  As  a  final  touch, 
climb  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's.  But  that  is  not 
possible  to  everybody,  and  I  therefore  give  here 
a  picture  for  the  less  Alpinistic  among  my 
readers. 

Amongst  the  lost  opportunities  of  knowing  the 
Vatican  is  the  careless  omission  of  a  visit  to  the 
Vatican  Library. 

I  must  speak  about  this  Library,  for  it  is  one  of 
the  monuments  of  Sixtine  Rome,  which  bear  the 
characteristics  of  this  Pope's  taste  in  its  most 


Library  barring  the  Courtyard  of  Bramante. 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  79 


appealing  form.  I  beg  even  those  who  do  not 
care  for  Sixtus  and  his  time,  and  those  not  specially 
interested  in  the  Vatican  building,  to  see  at  least 
that  part,  my  secret  hope  being  to  convert  them 
from  the  opinion  that,  in  Rome,  there  are  only 
ruins  and  statues  and  the  Renaissance,  and  nothing 
after  it  until  Bernini. 

Objections  will  occur  as  soon  as  one  realises 
what  the  time  around  1600  means,  beginning  with 
the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V,  objections  which  apply 
particularly  to  this  period  when  taken  apart. 

I  am  ready  to  agree  that  the  Lateran  Palace  has 
a  stiff'  facade  and  a  courtyard  in  which  the  charm 
of  the  handsomer  Roman  courts  is  lacking.  There 
is  in  the  works  of  Sixtus  V  a  rigidity  of  which  the 
Lateran  Palace  is  the  worst  example.  Yet,  as  we 
turn  from  Porta  Furba,  passing  through  the  gate 
of  San  Giovanni,  that  very  rigidity  becomes  dignity 
when  seen  against  the  evening  sky.  It  helps  to 
throw  forward  the  emotional  facade  of  the  Basilica, 
a  work  of  later  times,  next  to  the  palace.  The 
pictorial  effect  of  black  and  white  had  not  occurred 
to  Fontana. 

On  the  other  side  you  find  yourself  in  the  Sixtine 
era  :  the  obelisk,  palace  and  facade,  with  the  loggia, 
are  purely  Sixtine.  Here  the  aspect  of  stiffness 
and  general  lack  of  elegance  disappears.  A  special 
flavour,  essentially  Roman,  emanates  from  the 
whole. 

It  takes  some  time  to  understand  what  is  Roman 


80 


SIXTINE  ROME 


and  what  is  not  .  .  .  and  you  can  only  fully  do  so 
when  you  have  come  to  love  every  tiled  chimney, 
and  the  typical  Roman  gates,  and  also  the  special 
music  which  the  Roman  puts  in  his  pronunciation 
of  the  word  "Roma,"  with  an  accentuated  first 
syllable. 

I  will  not  try  to  explain  what  is  Roman.  I 
could  not.  Jacques  Callot  knew  it  better  than 
Piranesi  did. 

To  feel  it,  go  to  San  Giovanni  from  the  Coliseum. 
Stop  at  San  Clemente,  study  the  side  entrance, 
a  Roman  jewel,  and  pass  on  to  the  square  of 
Sixtus :  Fontana,  Egypt,  sunshine,  bricks,  and 
Rome. 

Before  this  impression  evaporates  hasten  to  visit 
the  Vatican  Library  .  .  .  when  the  mind  has  de- 
veloped the  image  of  that  square  at  San  Giovanni, 
and  before  other  sensations  and  visions  have  blurred 
it  in  any  way. 

To  go  to  the  Vatican  Library  for  the  sake  of 
Sixtus  V  indicates  a  desire  to  understand  the  time 
and  civilisation  which  produced  his  buildings  :  the 
important  historical  era  in  which  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  strengthened  herself  with  her  own 
spiritual,  political,  financial,  and  scientific  re- 
sources. 

This  monument  is  in  every  sense  an  expression 
of  that  epoch  of  general  history. 

Sixtus  y  realised  the  worth  of  books  from  his 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  81 


own  experience,  and  valued  the  Vatican  Library 
for  its  usefulness  to  the  Renaissance  and  the 
Counter-Reformation. 

When  merely  Fra  Peretti,  he  started  a  private 
collection  of  books,  which  went  on  increasing  until 
his  pontificate.  He  kept  a  perfect  account  of  his 
private  library,  which  was  published,  with  other 
notes  about  his  life,  all  written  by  his  own  hand, 
in  the  review  of  the  Roman  Historical  Society. 

His  particular  tastes  prevail  in  the  choice  of  his 
acquisitions.  There  are  books  about  the  Francis- 
can Order,  to  which  he  belonged  ;  about  country 
life,  which  he  loved ;  about  Rome  before  he 
transformed  it ;  accounts  of  the  "  Mysteries  of 
the  old  Egyptians,"  where  there  might  be  found 
some  references  to  his  obelisks ;  and  also  a  regular 
work  about  those  strange  monuments,  inexplicable 
in  his  time. 

He  shared  a  taste  for  geography  with  his 
predecessor,  Gregorius  XIII,  and  took  special  note 
of  which  of  his  books  contained  maps  ;  he  possessed 
among  others  one  volume  concerning  the  navigation 
of  the  New  World. 

America  was  then  in  vogue.  Gregorius  XIII, 
in  the  course  of  his  travels,  noticed  the  portraits 
of  Columbus  and  Amerigo  Vespucci  in  the  Villa 
of  Caprarola.  We  find,  of  course,  in  Sixtus'  book- 
cases, volumes  about  the  antiquities  of  Rome 
which  he  wished  to  destroy,  and  the  ancient  aque- 
ducts which  he  would  revive. 

G 


82 


SIXTINE  ROME 


But  literature,  history,  and  theology  prevail  in 
his  library. 

We  may  suppose  that  Cardinal  Felice  Montalto 
had  learned  to  appreciate  the  Vatican  Library — 
even  if  we  have  no  proofs  that  he  studied  there. 

In  any  case,  the  history  of  the  times  of  Pius  V 
and  Gregorius  XIII — a  history  through  which  he 
had  lived — taught  him  the  usefulness  of  manu- 
script arsenals  in  the  Vatican  in  the  struggle 
against  Protestantism,  and  in  establishing  several 
fundamental  texts  of  the  Roman  Catholic  creed. 
Scholars  came  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  especially 
from  the  countries  along  the  Lower  Rhine,  where 
the  old  belief  remained  firm,  to  study  the  manu- 
scripts and  works  of  the  Church  fathers,  Bible 
texts,  and  the  first  historians  of  the  Roman 
Church. 

The  printing-presses  in  Rome  and  in  the  Nether- 
lands rivalled  in  publishing  beautiful  editions  signed 
with  the  famous  names  of  Manutius  in  Rome  and 
Plantin  in  Antwerp. 

One  of  the  most  convincing  results  of  this 
rivalry  of  skill  and  taste  is  the  Bible  in  four 
languages,  printed  by  Plantin  in  1571-1573  for 
the  King  of  Spain.  Two  copies  of  this  work,  with 
a  remarkable  map  of  the  world  as  it  was  known 
at  that  time,  were  sent  to  Rome  as  presents  :  one 
to  Cardinal  Sirletus,  and  one  to  the  Pope.  The 
latter,  a  really  gorgeous  volume,  printed  on  parch- 
ment, is  in  the  Vatican  Library  to  this  day. 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  83 


The  best  proof  that  Sixtus  appreciated  the  im- 
portance of  the  Vatican  Library  is  demonstrated 
by  the  care  which  he  at  once  bestowed  on  it  when 
he  was  made  Pope.  Again  here,  some  arguments 
will  show  how  in  Italy  everything  has  its  reason. 

A  clear  demonstration  of  the  principles  of  rever- 
ence and  honour  for  the  treasures  of  human 
civilisation  already  formed  two  fair-sized  volumes 
in  Sixtus  V's  own  time.  Pansa  and  Rocca,  who 
wrote  those  two  books,  had  pondered  deeply  on 
the  subject.  Perhaps  they  had  discussed  it  with 
Fulvio  Orsini,  whom  we  find  mentioned  in  Sixtus' 
book  of  expenses  (in  the  Vatican  Archives  MS.) 
as  a  "  scriptor  "  with  a  modest  salary. 

There  surely  was,  already  in  those  days,  a  group 
of  "  friends  of  the  Vatican  Library,"  who  put  their 
intelligent  heads  seriously  together  when  a  question 
of  importance,  like  the  health  and  preservation  of 
that  mighty  body,  was  brought  forward  for  dis- 
cussion. 

The  amount  of  information  which  we  can  gather 
from  those  two  books  by  Rocca  and  Pansa,  and 
from  the  description  which  the  architect,  Do- 
menico  Fontana,  left  of  his  work,  is  overwhelm- 
ing. They  explain  the  symbolism  of  the  outer  and 
inner  ornamentation  down  to  the  most  abstract 
detail.  No  square  metre  of  wall  has  been  left 
without  some  allegorical  or  symbolical  composition. 

This  style  of  ornamentation  was  greatly  admired 
throughout  the  whole  XVIth  century.    The  eye 


84 


SIXTINE  ROME 


had  to  wander  around  the  sides  of  an  aristocratic 
building,  along  the  ceiling,  into  the  very  corners 
and  edges,  to  find  something  to  enjoy  or  to  think 
about.  Often  the  decoration  of  small  panels  full 
of  mythological  and  biblical  scenes  is  too  insipid 
for  our  taste. 

Scientists  and  theologians  of  the  XVIth  cen- 
tury no  doubt  enjoyed  living  in  houses  which 
offered  a  great  number  of  puzzles  to  their  guesl 
We  can  picture  them  walking  around,  testing  eac1 
other's  knowledge  of  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid 
and  of  the  less  currently  known  stories  of  the  Old 
Testament  to  supply  an  explanation  of  the  scenes. 

Roman  history,  zoology,  geography,  and  com- 
plicated symbols  of  the  so-called  "emblemata" 
were  also  applied  in  decoration. 

The  paintings  in  the  apartments  of  Castel 
Sant'  Angelo,  of  the  Villa  Madama,  of  the  Villa 
Giulia,  and  of  the  Loggie  of  Raphael,  afford 
specimens  of  every  kind. 

Outside  Rome,  in  the  neighbourhood  then  most 
in  fashion  for  rich  country  houses,  between  Viterbo 
and  the  Lake  of  Bolsena,  around  the  Lake  of 
Bracciano,  and  along  the  roads  leading  from  there 
to  the  city,  interesting  examples  of  this  ornamenta- 
tion are  to  be  found,  chiefly  at  Caprarola  and 
Bagnaja. 

Thus  an  Italian  XVIth-century  palace  is  an 
open  picture-book,  illustrating  the  taste  of  the 
period.    We  now  look  upon  these  illustrations 


.83 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  85 


with  cold  interest,  but,  at  that  time,  they  were 
a  constant  topic  of  conversation,  and  no  doubt  the 
picture  of  the  marriage  of  Margaret  of  Parma 
in  one  of  the  Castle  rooms  at  Caprarola  must  have 
inspired  much  animated  comment  .  .  .  How 
proud  must  Cardinal  Alessandro  Montalto  have 
felt  when  showing  to  his  guests  in  Bagnaja 
the  map  of  Rome  in  the  Loggia,  explaining  the 
city's  transformations.  Our  attention  is  still 
attracted  by  it,  but  there  is  no  personal  feeling 
in  our  hearts  as  we  examine  it. 

Guests  went  from  one  villa  to  another,  and  had 
occasion  for  comparisons  and  combinations.  If, 
in  one  place,  they  had  seen  the  picture  of  some 
strange  animal,  in  the  next  they  could  see  the 
countries  where  those  curious  creatures  roamed 
pictured  on  the  world's  map  hanging  against  the 
wall,  and  learned  people  then  had  a  fine  opportu- 
nity of  showing  off  their  knowledge  of  Herodotus, 
Plinius,  and  the  recent  geographical  discoveries  of 
their  own  times. 

The  Renaissance  had  awakened  a  vivid  desire 
for  learning,  and,  for  a  while,  the  fine  arts  did  not 
escape  the  influence  of  the  new  trend  of  ideas. 
One  of  the  typical  features  of  the  XVIth  cen- 
tury is  the  collaboration  of  the  scientist  with  the 
artist,  a  collaboration  which  often  degenerated  into 
the  dictatorship  of  the  man  of  books  over  the 
pencil  and  brush  of  his  more  humble  companion. 
The  painter  was  socially  inferior  to  the  man  of 


86 


SIXTINE  ROME 


learning,  and  therefore  willing  to  execute  his  in- 
structions. We  marvel  as  we  read  long  letters  of 
directions  written  to  painters  by  persons  whose 
names  were  to  vanish  long  before  the  frescoes. 
It  was  an  honour  for  a  painter  to  be  taken  from 
his  sphere  of  lines  and  colours  to  the  high 
Olympus,  where  pagan  deities  sat  to  him  for  his 
canvas. 

Art,  however,  has  an  independence  of  its  own, 
only  to  be  tamed  in  times  of  decadence,  and  which 
escapes  from  its  bonds  as  soon  as  it  feels  its  own 
strength. 

The  learned  painting  of  the  ceiling  shows  it  in 
the  development  of  its  ornamentation.  There, 
from  slight,  insignificant  bits  of  landscape,  the 
new  school  of  landscape-painting  was  born  to 
flourish  freely  in  the  following  century.  See,  for 
instance,  on  the  above-mentioned  maps  of  Gre- 
gorius  XIII  (Galleria  delle  Carte  Geografiche), 
in  the  "  Bath  of  Saint  Cecilia,"  in  the  church  in 
Trastevere,  and  in  the  Palazzo  Lante  at  Bagnaja, 
near  Viterbo,  some  landscapes,  included  in  the 
decoration,  but  obviously  painted  for  their  own 
sake. 

By  accepting  a  servile  position,  depending  for 
inner  substance  from  the  teachings  of  learning, 
Art  lost  its  durable  worth.  An  immense  distance 
separates  lesson  from  inspiration.  The  lesson 
evaporates  .  .  .  the  inspiration  remains.  We 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  87 


love  the  frescoes  of  Giotto,  inspired  by  St.  Francis, 
but  look  coldly  at  the  frescoes  of  Taddeo  Zuccaro 
and  his  school,  taught  by  Annibale  Caro. 

In  his  own  time,  the  art-historian  Vasari  was 
obliged  to  explain  the  frescoes  of  Caprarola  to 
the  public,  and,  to  save  himself  trouble,  quoted  the 
letter  in  which  Caro,  the  scientist,  told  the  painter 
Zuccaro  "how  to  do  his  work  well."  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  theologians  guided  the  hand  of  artists 
when  the  mysteries  of  religion  had  to  be  inter- 
preted, but  here  the  spirit  is  not  elevated  but 
pedantic,  and  Vasari  did  wisely  to  use  the  origi- 
nal letters,  for  he  himself  would  probably  have 
confused  the  complicated  significance  of  the 
frescoes. 

When  the  frescoes  on  the  walls  of  the  Vatican 
Library  were  still  damp  each  visitor  needed  a 
learned  guide.  For,  without  a  thorough  explana- 
tion, many  deep  intentions  might  escape  him,  and 
many  things  become  confused.  Even  then  many 
a  traveller  had  to  give  up  the  hope  of  carrying 
away  in  his  memory  a  perfect  understanding  of 
the  whole. 

With  the  best  intentions,  we  can  no  longer 
entertain  a  spirit  of  admiration  for  the  ornamenta- 
tion within  and  outside  the  Six  tine  Library.  We 
realise  at  once,  before  these  soulless  allegorical 
figures,  that  it  is  not  worth  our  while  to  struggle 
to  understand,  that  there  will  be  no  great  satisfac- 
tion to  reward  us  in  the  end.    This  causes  our 


88 


SIXTINE  ROME 


attention  to  relax,  and  takes  away  that  thrill  of 
expectation  which  we  feel  at  the  sight  of  a  real 
masterpiece,  or  just  before  the  opening  notes  of  a 
symphony. 

We  take  it  for  granted  that  famous  ancient 
libraries  are  represented  opposite  to  each  other, 
also  great  ecclesiastical  councils ;  that  all  kinds 
of  letter-types  are  shown,  and  the  different 
Prophets  and  Sibyls  who  used  the  languages  of 
the  world  to  express  sublime  thoughts.  One 
glance  at  the  faded  "graffiti"  and  we  have  done 
with  the  symbolism  which  had  brought  grey 
hair  to  the  poet  Guglielmo  Blancus  and  cost 
many  a  sleepless  night  to  Rocca  and  Pansa  in 
their  attempt  to  describe  it  fully.  If  we  observe, 
in  the  contraposition  of  the  decoration  on  the  right 
and  left  walls,  an  allusion  to  the  use  of  the  Vatican 
Library  for  the  Council  of  Trent,  we  have  done 
as  much  as  can  be  expected  from  any  of  our 
contemporaries,  and  this  hasty  survey  may  be 
sufficient  to  enable  us  to  grasp  the  significance  of 
this  place. 

Nevertheless,  much  entertainment  and  some  sur- 
prises are  to  be  found,  in  modest  corners  near  the 
ceiling  for  those  who  are  interested  in  the  Rome 
of  this  period  and  in  the  works  of  Sixtus  V. 

At  the  entrance,  we  see  him  sitting  between  his 
two  kinsmen,  the  Cardinal  and  a  handsome  youth 
in  shining  armour,  the  Governor  of  Rome,  Michele 
Peretti.    The  book-loving  Neapolitan  Cardinal, 


Photo  Moscioiti. 

The  librarian  Platina  received  by  Sixtus  IV. 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY 


89 


Antonio  Carafa,  the  successor  of  Sirletus,  who 
died  under  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V,  presents 
the  plan  of  the  library,  held  by  Dornenico  Fontana, 
who  is  wearing  with  pride  the  gold  chain  bestowed 
upon  him  by  Sixtus. 

Behind  is  seen  Federigo  Rainaldi,  the  librarian, 
and  other  employees  (all  portraits,  painted  on  wood 
by  Facchetti  of  Mantua),  to  whose  care  were 
entrusted  the  22,000  volumes  of  the  library,  most 
of  them  in  manuscript. 

The  employees  are  carrying  books,  as-^a  sort  of 
identification !  The  prominent  place,  however, 
is  not  held  by  them  or  for  them  by  the  superinten- 
dent— as  in  the  fresco  of  Melozzo  da  Forli,  where 
Sixtus  IV  receives  Platina,  in  the  Pinacotheca  of 
the  Vatican.  Dornenico  Fontana,  the  gifted 
architect,  is  the  man  of  the  hour ! 

The  painter  of  this  group  was  not  a  psychologist ; 
perhaps,  if  he  had  been,  Sixtus  would  not  have 
favoured  him,  and  Dornenico  Fontana  would  have 
employed  a  more  obedient  master  of  the  brush. 
But,  if  he  had  been,  he  might  have  placed  in  the 
eyes  of  those  two — the  Pope  and  the  former  mason's 
apprentice — a  look  of  understanding,  to  last  through 
the  centuries  as  a  lesson  that  Fortune  is  fickle  and 
that  energy  and  talent  can  attain  high  destinies. 

From  the  time  when  Cardinal  Montalto  and 
Maestro  Fontana  used  to  ponder  over  small  sums 
to  be  spent  on  the  Villa  Montalto,  they  had 
reached  the  point  when  a  simple  mandate  from 


90 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  Pope  allowed  his  architect -in -chief  to  draw 
large  amounts  from  the  papal  treasury. 

Volumes  containing  the  accounts  of  Sixtus  V  may 
be  consulted  in  the  Vatican  Archives.  Receipts 
and  expenses  are  entered  month  by  month  in  an 
excellent  handwriting.  The  Cardinals  receive  their 
regular  allowance,  110  to  115  scudi  a  month,  the 
barber  6  scudi,  the  shoemaker  4  scudi,  and  the  tailor 
6  scudi  a  month. 

Michele  Peretti  received  the  money  to  pay  the 
Swiss  Guard.  The  head  of  a  brigand  was  valued 
at  50  scudi.  The  highest  entries  are  always  to 
Maestro  Fontanafor  different  works  "done  for  our 
Signore"  (the  Pope).  These  sums  went  up  to 
1000  scudi  for  a  single  month  ! 

Among  the  entries,  I  also  found  the  price  of  a 
golden  chain  presented  to  Fontana  when  he 
was  knighted.  His  coat  of  arms  shows  an 
obelisk  between  two  fountains,  and  some  tools. 
This  laborious  man  did  not  despise  the  simple 
instruments  which  led  him  to  fame. 

On  the  walls  of  his  own  house,  situated  in  the 
Vicolo  delle  Palline,  near  the  gate  of  the  corridor 
from  Castel  Sant'  Angelo  to  the  Vatican,  the  first 
house  on  the  right  through  the  arch,  he  represented 
all  his  works. 

They  were  still  there  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  have  been  reproduced. 
Now  the  house  is  used  as  a  low-class  hotel,  and  its 
frescoed  walls  are  covered  with  paper  ! 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  91 


To  judge  from  one  reproduction,  given  by  Prince 
Massimo  in  a  very  interesting  book  about  Sixtus 
V's  Villa  Montalto — now  demolished  and  covered 
by  new  quarters,  near  the  railway  station — it  must 
have  been  worth  studying.  They  may  still  exist, 
in  photographs  taken  long  ago,  but  perhaps  lost  in 
the  Capitoline  offices. 

Happily  the  same  ill  fortune  could  not  affect  the 
similar  but  more  complete  paintings  left  by  the 
Pope  on  the  library  walls  of  his  own  house. 
These  frescoes  of  the  achievements  of  Sixtus  V 
remain  in  splendid  condition  to  this  day. 

Above  the  portraits  of  the  Pope,  of  Fontana, 
and  of  those  interested  in  the  founding  of  the 
new  library,  is  represented  the  solemn  posscsso 
(taking  possession  of  the  Lateran),  with  which,  in 
great  state,  a  new  pontificate  was  always  ushered  in. 

The  three  vital  points  of  that  posscsso  were 
indicated  in  the  fresco : — 

The  Capitol,  as  in  the  Sixtine  era. 

The  Coliseum. 

The  Lateran,  as  it  was  before  the  changes 
brought  about  by  Sixtus. 

The  procession  winds  through  the  whole  picture. 
But  neither  the  numerous  riders  in  elegant  cos- 
tumes, others  in  full  armour,  the  stalwart  Swiss 
Guard,  nor  the  vivid  group  of  Cardinals  can 
draw  our  attention  away  from  the  Pope,  mounted 
on  a  white  horse,  followed  by  two  figures,  also 
riding. 


92 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Those  quaint  persons  so  near  to  the  Pope  were 
two  Japanese  princes,  brought  on  a  mission  to  Rome, 
in  the  last  days  of  Gregorius  XIII,  by  a  Jesuit 
priest.  The  city  was  already  familiar  with  those 
young  men,  who  had  travelled  during  three 
years  in  order  to  reach  Europe  ;  they  astonished 
the  papal  court  by  their  perfect  manners,  and 
the  citizens  by  their  strange  habit  of  drinking 
tepid  water. 

Their  behaviour  contrasted  favourably  with 
that  of  a  Muscovite  mission  received  by  Gre- 
gorius XIII,  of  which  the  uneducated  members 
committed  a  series  of  mistakes,  not  only  at  com- 
plicated court  ceremonies,  but  also  against  the 
rules  of  breeding. 

The  Japanese  princes  knew  a  little  Portuguese 
and  Italian ;  they  declared  that  they  had  not 
expected  so  many  honours  or  they  would  have 
brought  many  more  presents  and  a  more  numerous 
suite.  Their  genial  smile  and  courteous  ways  won 
for  them  a  warm  welcome  in  Rome,  and  they 
were  present  at  several  great  events  of  the  new 
pontificate.  They  were,  for  instance,  in  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva  when  the  Pope 
bestowed  dowries  upon  maidens ;  they  had  wit- 
nessed his  coronation  before,  and  had  received  an 
invitation  to  visit  his  Villa  Montalto,  near  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore.  They  even  went  to  Caprarola, 
where  their  astonishment  reached  its  height, 
according  to  the  journalists  of  those  days,  who 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  93 


also  chronicle  that  the  Japanese  princes  liked 
Rome  very  much  but  desired  to  return  to  "  their 
Antipodes  "  !  One  of  the  princes  fell  sick  on  his 
visit ;  a  doctor  was  called  to  attend  him  from 
the  Villa  d'Este,  at  Tivoli,  by  order  of  the  Pope. 
When  the  prince  was  cured  the  mission  resumed 
its  journey,  stopping  at  Florence  on  the  way. 
No  new  Japanese  mission  would  henceforward 
arrive  in  Rome  before  1615. 

For  further  details  see  the  Italian  book  of  Prince 
Boncompagni,  which  gives  full  information  about 
the  two  missions  under  Sixtus  V  and  Paul  V. 

Sixtus  V  may  have  remembered,  in  this  gor- 
geous cavalcade,  another  ride,  mentioned  in  his 
biographical  notes  in  the  year  1556.  Being 
obliged  to  go  to  the  general  meeting  of  the 
Franciscans  in  Brescia,  he  hired  a  horse,  taking 
it  on  the  condition  that  he  might  sell  it  for  a 
certain  price.  The  owner  must  have  had  his 
doubts  about  this  quadruped.  Fra  Felice  Peretti 
soon  realised  that  it  was  di  triste  razssa  (of  a 
poor  sort),  and  sold  the  animal  to  a  policeman 
for  9  scudi.  This  horse  is  lost  in  oblivion,  like 
many  others  which  may  have  carried  the  monk  or, 
later,  the  Cardinal. 

The  stuffed  skin  of  the  favourite  horse  of 
Sixtus  V  was  in  existence  until  the  nineteenth 
century.  Prince  Massimo,  whom  nothing  escaped, 
mentions  this  equine  relic  in  his  book  about  the 
Villa  Montalto,  where  it  was  preserved,  and  quotes 


94 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  horse  of  the  last  Duke  of  Urbino,  preserved 
for  130  years  in  a  house  of  Pesaro. 

Another  fresco  in  the  Library,  of  equal  size  and 
importance,  shows  the  coronation  on  the  steps  of 
St.  Peter's.  This  function  takes  up  but  a  small 
space,  and,  though  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
panel,  its  importance  is  altogether  surpassed  by  the 
scenery  around  it. 

Here  we  have  St.  Peter's  still  in  its  earlier 
form,  the  ancient  basilica  already  overshadowed 
by  its  domeless  usurper.  The  mind  of  the  newly 
crowned  Pope  already  turns  to  the  transformation 
of  the  whole  square.  Soon  a  committee  of  Car- 
dinals and  experts  will  decide  upon  the  transfer  of 
the  obelisk — the  only  one  left  standing — from  that 
corner  to  the  left,  where  the  building  of  the 
Inquisition  rises  so  majestically  on  a  line  with 
the  church. 

For  the  study  of  the  history  of  St.  Peter's, 
this  fresco  and  an  older  one  in  the  Palace  of  the 
Cancellaria,  and  some  old  prints — one  representing 
a  feast  in  the  court  of  the  Belvedere — are  ex- 
tremely useful. 

As  a  transition  between  the  Middle  Ages  and 
the  modern  development  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  it  has  a  symbolical  significance,  Sixtus  V 
being  the  Pope  who  built  the  dome,  and  his  reign 
being  the  preparation  and  foundation  of  various 
improvements  to  the  interior  and  exterior,  which 
would  enable  the  Roman  Church  to  renew  its 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  95 


strength.  The  dome  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
assertions  of  the  triumph  of  the  Renaissance  over 
the  Middle  Ages. 

The  reign  of  Sixtus,  powerful  but  spiritual,  began 
from  the  very  first  days  following  the  Conclave. 

Scattered  round  the  walls  in  the  panels,  we  find 
other  instances  of  the  practical  side  of  the  new 
endeavour  to  impress  the  world  with  the  high 
spiritual  example  of  Rome.  Sixtus  V  courageously 
felt  that  it  was  not  sufficient  to  open  the  books  of 
the  Church  Fathers,  but  that  the  real  needs  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  had  many  roots  in  this 
earth. 

He  was  proud  of  his  worldly  measures,  and  had 
them  painted  in  the  Library ;  he  challenged  by 
this  act  the  criticism  of  the  Bishops,  scientists,  and 
Prophets  of  the  Church,  of  the  Councils  and 
libraries  all  around,  who  might  be  shocked  by  the 
following  bold  symbols  : — 

Abundance — a  lion  shaking  a  pear  tree  for  a 
herd  of  lambs ; 

Safety — a  lion  charging  a  wolf; 

Morality — dowered  brides  ; 
— and  by  the  picture  of  a  safe,  with  a  lion  above 
it,  the  Lion  Sixtus  V. 

In  that  same  line,  rank  the  proud  galleys,  swing- 
ing their  banners  in  the  wind,  on  a  somewhat 
heavy  sea.  This  is  not  the  symbolical  ship  of  St. 
Peter,  but  a  body  of  mighty  men-of-war,  intended 
to  secure  the  safety  of  the  Ecclesiastical  State 


96 


SIXTINE  ROME 


against  attacks  from  the  sea.  The  allegorical 
figures  of  Rome  and  the  Tiber  look  complacently 
on,  and  Romulus  and  Remus  play  quietly  on  the 
seashore. 

This  panel  deserves  a  moment's  attention,  as  it 
gives  an  exact  representation  of  battleships  at  the 
end  of  the  XVIth  century. 

The  crowd  of  galley-slaves  is  not  even  seen. 
They  are  only  part  of  the  engine  which  beats  with 
mighty  strokes  of  the  oars  the  waters  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Their  lives  ended  miserably  on 
these  galerc ;  chained  to  their  benches,  bent  with 
fatigue  under  the  whip  of  their  inflexible  masters, 
they  remained  until  some  charitable  bullet,  aimed 
at  their  floating  prison,  swept  off  the  cannons  and 
the  soldiery  on  the  upper  deck,  and  drowned  the 
beautiful  lanterns  and  proud  pavilions  in  the  rear. 

Galley-slaves  were  treated  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce. The  Viceroy  of  Naples  provided  a  large 
number  of  them  for  the  papal  fleet. 

From  Civitavecchia  they  were  sent  to  Spain  to 
form  crews  in  the  Invincible  Armada.  While  the 
whole  of  Italy  was  looking  out  for  the  happy  news 
of  the  fleet's  successful  landing  in  England,  and 
reading  the  signs  of  the  sky,  the  heart  of  many 
a  relative  of  some  lost  son  on  the  galleys  must 
have  trembled  for  his  fate. 

Not  only  politicians,  but  also  humble  citizens, 
must  have  gone  into  mourning  when  finally  the 
messenger  brought  the  news  of  the  Armada's 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  97 


defeat,  proving  the  misinterpretation  of  the  thun- 
der-cloud over  Rome,  which  had  been  taken  to 
portend  a  Spanish  victory. 

Galley-slaves,  when  they  did  not  succumb  to 
their  hard  life,  certainly  became  very  athletic.  A 
foreign  engraver,  Henricus  Goltzius  from  Haar- 
lem, who  was  in  Rome  in  the  year  after  Sixtus' 
death,  went  to  Civitavecchia  on  purpose  to  study 
their  unusual  muscular  development.  # 

The  style  of  the  time  following  Michelangelo 
affected  Titanic  forms,  even  in  scenes  which  did  not 
call  for  any  exhibition  of  muscles.  So  that  if  a 
real  athlete  had  to  be  drawn,  a  Hercules  in  full 
action,  or  an  Atlas  carrying  the  world,  something 
extraordinary  had  to  be  produced,  and  only  galley- 
slaves  offered  this  specimen  of  mankind,  in  which 
brute  force  was  the  only  quality  and  reason  for 
existence. 

With  the  next  panel,  representing  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore,  we  enter  into  the  peaceful  category  of 
the  works  of  Sixtus  V.  The  Sixtine  Chapel  is 
already  attached,  the  Pauline  Chapel  is  still  missing, 
of  course.  As  a  landmark  of  Roman  topography 
of  modern  times  this  representation  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  gives  an  arithmetically  sure  indi- 
cation of  the  period. 

The  chapel  to  the  left  of  the  onlooker  who  sees 
the  basilica  from  the  obelisk  side,  dates  from  the 
time  of  Sixtus  V  (1586),  or  after. 

The  one  to  the  right,  from  Paulus  V,  or  later ; 

H 


98 


SIXTINE  ROME 


at  least,  so  it  appears  on  the  genuine  maps  of 
Rome. 

This  last  restriction  can  cause  much  trouble 
when  not  observed.  Many  of  the  plates  which 
served  to  print  the  views  or  maps  of  Rome  have 
been  touched  up  as  years  went  by,  and  one  pontifi- 
cate followed  another. 

As  long  as  the  editor  who  owned  the  plate 
wisely  took"  care  to  simplify  the  whole  plan,  no 
great  harm  was  done  to  the  print.  The  new 
touches  are  easily  detected,  and  the  map  is  treated 
with  due  suspicion.  But  when  there  are  only  a 
few  corrections  we  risk  a  certain  confusion,  for  we 
then  have  but  a  distorted  image  of  Rome.  The 
fact  that  the  original  date  is  left  on  the  plate  adds 
to  the  general  mystification. 

In  the  Galleria  Geografiche  a  good  miniature  of 
Rome  is  painted  on  a  map.1  Here  we  are  warned 
against  possible  mistakes.  The  Gallery  dates  from 
Gregorius  XIII,  and  an  inscription  is  not  lacking 
telling  us  that  Urbanus  VIII  restored  the  whole, 
so  that  we  find  both  chapels  in  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore. 

The  reader  will  be  lenient  with  these  details,  for 
they  open  a  field  of  observation  by  which  he  can 
extend  his  own  pleasure  and  develop  his  own  taste. 
Why  should  we  continually  dwell  on  ancient 
Rome  ?  Has  it  not  been  difficult  enough  to  locate 
the  seven  hills  and  all  their  edifices  ?    Besides,  we 

1  This  map  is  published  in  the  Melanges  de  l'Ecole  Francaise. 


Santa  Maria  Maggiore. 

Lowering  ok  the  Cradle-Chanel. 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  99 


never  wrong  classical  Rome  when  we  turn  our 
attention  to  more  recent  centuries.  Its  traces  sur- 
round us,  as  the  frescoes  around  the  library  show. 
In  this  very  fresco  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  .  .  . 
those  ruins  on  one  side  ...  I  will  let  you  tell 
me  what  they  are.  The  presence  or  absence  of  the 
Septizonium  is  another  chronological  indication. 
Even  the  vanished  ancient  city  has  come  into 
prominence  on  the  more  modern  maps ;  its  classi- 
cal past  has  by  no  means  sunk  into  oblivion. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  Library,  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  is  twice  again  represented  in  the  fresco. 
The  last  one  of  the  three  must  be  specially  men- 
tioned, or  the  Sixtine  Chapel  might  not  be  recog- 
nised ;  it  is  represented  in  a  vertical  section,  so  as 
to  show  the  ingenious  way  in  which  Domenico 
Fontana  included  a  chapel  within  a  chapel. 

This  panel  belongs  to  a  series  of  technical 
illustrations,  of  which  the  book  of  Fontana  about 
his  own  buildings  gives  other  examples.  And, 
among  many  other  interesting  books  published  in 
Italy  on  similar  subjects,  we  may  quote  a  pamphlet 
describing  the  efforts  made  to  reach  the  top  of  the 
obelisk,  in  order  to  change  the  weather-beaten 
cross  placed  there  in  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V. 

The  other  panel  shows  the  translation  of  the 
remains  of  Pius  V  to  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  to 
the  chapel  where  the  two  Popes — Pius  V  and 
Sixtus  V — now  rest  together. 

In  both  frescoes,  we  distinguish  on  the  left  the 


100 


SIXTINE  ROME 


villa  of  Sixtus,  in  earlier  years,  the  Villa  Montalto, 
his  favourite  abode,  even  after  he  became  Pope. 
He  divided  his  time  between  the  Vatican,  the 
Quirinal,  and  this  Villa,  never  staying  in  the 
Lateran  Palace.  The  last-named  residence  must 
have  been  somewhat  uncomfortable,  for  the 
Cardinals  even  did  not  occupy  the  apartments 
appointed  for  them  in  the  new  palace. 

The  Vatican  was  very  conveniently  placed  for 
services  at  St.  Peter's.  Under  Sixtus  V  a  new 
staircase  was  built  at  the  recently  closed  entrance 
to  the  Stanze,  reaching  the  basilica  in  the  Gregorian 
Chapel.  The  paintings  on  the  vault  of  this  stair- 
case were  executed  by  Lattanzio  Bolognese,  and 
the  new  communication  opened  in  March,  1587. 
We  read  in  the  Master  of  Ceremonies'  diary 
(Alaleone)  for  the  first  time  at  that  date,  that,  for 
every  service,  Sixtus  V  went  to  the  Gregorian 
Chapel  through  the  new  staircase. 

Those  diaries  afford  a  valuable  assistance  to  the 
historian  ;  they  were  kept  privately  by  the  Master 
of  Ceremonies,  who  wrote  down  many  personal 
observations  and  anecdotes,  often  not  hesitating  to 
criticise  the  Pope.  Alaleone,  for  instance,  says 
somewhere  that  the  Pope  was  so  impatient  at 
some  ceremony  that  he  would  have  caused  even 
a  Solomon  to  lose  his  head. 

Under  Sixtus  V  the  Quirinal,  which  had  been 
inhabited  already  by  Gregorius  XIII,  though 
merely  as  a  guest  of  Cardinal  d'Este,  began  to  be 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  101 

used  as  a  regular  residence  for  the  Pope,  especially 
in  summer.  The  Villa  d'Este  on  the  Quirinal 
became  the  Palazzo  del  Quirinale,  as  has  been 
already  mentioned  in  the  second  chapter.  Gre- 
gorius  XIII  had  placed  a  large  gilded  bronze 
dragon  on  the  top  of  the  first  part  of  the  present 
Quirinal  Palace,  which  had  been  the  part  assigned 
for  him  to  build.  Sixtus  V  at  once  took  away  this 
emblem  of  the  predecessor  whom  he  loved  so 
little,  and  replaced  it  by  his  own  coat  of  arms,  the 
mountains  and  star. 

All  the  relatives  of  Gregorius  XIII  and  the 
Cardinals  appointed  by  him  were  displeased  with 
this  action.  After  Sixtus'  death  his  own  emblem 
was  taken  away,  and,  by  order  of  Urbanus  VII, 
the  insignia  of  Gregorius  XIII  were  reinstated. 

The  Roman  custom  was  that  the  Pope  who 
actually  instituted  a  public  work  should  put  his  own 
coat  of  arms  on  the  wall,  in  a  spot  where  it  easily 
attracted  attention.  In  exceptional  cases  this 
custom  was  not  followed,  and  the  exception  then 
had  a  special  significance.  For  instance,  Urbanus 
VII  ordered  that  the  Vatican  building  should  be 
proceeded  with,  but  had  the  emblem  of  Sixtus  V 
placed  everywhere,  meaning  that  he  only  finished 
the  work  of  his  predecessor,  without  any  inten- 
tion to  follow  his  example  as  an  ardent  constructor, 
thus  reassuring  those  who  had  been  alarmed  by 
the  expenses  of  Sixtus  V  ! 

The  Vatican  Palace  remains  to  this  day  the 


102 


SIXTINE  ROME 


residence  of  the  Popes.  1  read  somewhere  that 
Sixtus  V  wished  the  private  apartments  to  have 
a  full  view  of  the  obelisk.  But  here  again  power- 
ful reasons  intervened,  and  instead  of  viewing  the 
splendid  panorama  and  single  obelisk,  the  Pope 
sought  to  make  way  for  the  sunshine  to  come  in. 

I  am  told  by  an  authority  on  the  history  of  the 
Apostolical  Palaces  that  all  the  sides  where  the 
sun  does  not  penetrate  are  unhealthy,  explaining 
by  this  circumstance  the  short  lives  of  the  Popes 
who  stayed  in  the  quarters  around  the  Cortile  del 
Belvedere. 

Sixtus  V  acknowledged  this  fact  also  in  the 
inscription  above  the  door  in  the  Cortile  di  San 
Damaso.  He  started  the  work,  when  perhaps 
already  feeling  the  effect  of  unhealthiness,  in  April, 
1589,  some  months  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  the  Quirinal. 

In  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate,  he  cared  very 
little  about  injuring  his  health,  and  would  walk  up 
and  down  in  the  open  corridor  along  the  Cortile 
del  Belvedere  till  late  in  the  evening.  It  is  men- 
tioned specially  in  May,  1585,  that  "the  air  of 
the  Vatican  in  general  was  at  that  time  worse  than 
usual,  and  the  Pope  not  of  the  strongest  constitu- 
tion." 

Sixtus  V  took  but  little  sleep,  and  quiet  nights 
were  very  precious  to  him.  So,  a  man  of  prac- 
tical decision,  he  ordered  away  from  the  palace 
at  that  valuable  time,  chickens,  dogs,  and  drums, 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  103 

in  order  that  his  sleep,  obtained  with  much  diffi- 
culty, might  be  undisturbed. 

This  was  in  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate, 
a  period  in  which  every  action  of  a  new  Pope 
is  noticed.  He  not  only  sent  away  the  innocent 
disturbers  of  his  night's  peace  for  the  sake  of  his 
health,  but  also,  perhaps  for  the  same  reason, 
discharged  five  doctors  at  once. 

Malicious  journalists  remarked  that  "most 
probably  a  sound  diet  would  keep  up  the  health 
of  the  papal  family."  The  great  historian  of 
Sixtus  V,  Hiibner,  has  left  a  note  throwing  a 
lurid  light  upon  medical  art  in  the  days  of 
Sixtus  V.  He  says  that  "  on  reading  many  pre- 
scriptions, he  did  not  marvel  so  much  at  the 
strange  formulas,  as  at  the  strength  of  the  persons 
who  resisted  those  medicines.  .  .  ." 

As  to  the  diet  of  the  papal  "family"  ("famiglia," 
signifying  household,  but  more  especially  those 
who  eat  in  the  house),  we  have  some  information 
from  a  manuscript  in  the  Vatican  Library.  The 
Pope  took  a  certain  kind  of  bread,  "Pane  papalino," 
in  loaves  of  fourteen  ounces  each.  Every  day 
was  consumed,  for  the  Pope's  own  table,  from 
the  cucina  segreta  (secret  kitchen)  three  pounds 
of  veal  and  one  chicken  ;  on  fast  days :  two  pounds 
of  good  fish  and  a  quart  of  olive  oil.  Every  week 
were  used  :  four  pounds  of  bacon,  one  and  a  half 
pounds  of  lard,  and  two  pounds  of  flour.  About 
four  and  a  half  scudi  were  spent  every  month 


104 


SIXTINE  ROME 


in  fresh  eggs,  cereals  and  soups.  .  .  .  Besides  this, 
six  brooms  were  purchased  every  month,  probably 
to  sweep  the  few  crumbs  which  fell  from  the 
parsimonious  table.  .  .  . 

Urbanus  VII  tore  to  pieces  the  ruolo  di 
famiglia — the  reduced  list  of  servants,  and  at  once 
brought  the  personnel  of  the  papal  palace  up  to  a 
more  luxurious  footing. 

Sixtus  liked  to  try  everything  himself.  One 
day  he  ordered  that  the  Villa  del  Papa  Giulio 
should  be  prepared  for  him  (foreign  visitors  of 
importance  usually  spent  the  night  there  before 
making  their  solemn  entry  into  the  city  the 
next  morning).  But  this  time  the  doctor  pro- 
tested, pointing  out  that  the  villa  was  too  small, 
and  the  air  there  very  bad  in  July ;  the  Pope 
therefore  changed  his  plans  and  went  to  the 
Quirinal. 

In  summer  every  Roman  becomes  impatient  to 
leave  the  stifling  city.  The  Cardinals  often  left 
Rome  before  the  great  heat  came  on.  At  the 
first  symptoms  of  approaching  summer  great  plans 
were  made  at  their  head-quarters  as  to  which  villa 
they  would  go  to  for  the  hot  season. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  Sixtus  V  spent  any 
summer  during  his  pontificate  away  from  Rome. 
He  divided  the  summer  months  between  the 
Quirinal — where  Consistories  were  held,  even  in 
the  intense  August  heat — and  the  Villa  Montalto. 

To  ensure  peaceful  sleep  for  the  whole  neigh- 


View  of  the  Medici  Gardens. 


Photo.  Mosciom 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  105 


bourhood,  he  forbade  the  ringing  of  the  bells  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  during  the  canicular  nights. 
He  did  not  give  up  his  nocturnal  habits,  and  we 
read  that  on  one  summer  evening  he  walked  till 
late  on  the  Piazza  Termini  with  the  famous 
archaeologist  Fulvio  Orsini,  who  conversed  with 
him  about  old  medals. 

The  Pope  was  not  at  all  afraid  of  the  night  air, 
the  anonymous  chronicler  writes,  so  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  Orsini  shared  this  indifference  to  the 
damp  summer  atmosphere  in  the  vicinity  of  gardens. 
If  he  held  on  this  point  the  usual  Roman  mis- 
givings, he  had  to  conceal  them,  like  the  old 
Cardinals  who  could  not  always  follow  the  Pope 
on  his  wanderings  in  the  daytime,  and  often  had 
to  disguise  their  fatigue. 

The  Pope  occasionally  took  his  supper  or  lunch 
at  the  Villa  Medici.  Even  when  we  consider  that 
the  luxurious  vegetation  of  the  Villa  was  then 
only  in  its  beginning,  and  that  its  marvellous 
decoration  lacked  the  gorgeous  pines,  the  picture 
is  a  romantic  one.  .  .  . 

The  Pope  sits  alone  on  the  loggia,  taking  his 
supper,  while,  below,  Rome  sinks  into  the  silence 
of  the  night,  weary  from  the  tropical  heat.  He 
lingers,  wide  awake,  his  active  brain  working,  his 
eyes  piercing  the  dark,  looking  for  spaces  where  he 
can  build  up  his  new  city  .  .  .  until  the  escort 
carrying  torches  takes  him  back  to  the  Quirinal 
by  his  own  Via  Felice  (Via  Sistina). 


106 


SIXTINE  ROME 


His  meals  were  brought  to  the  Villa  from 
his  own  kitchen.  This  could  not  have  been 
because  of  suspicion,  but  must  have  been  one 
of  his  habits  of  economy  applied  to  the  benefit 
of  others.  At  least,  we  may  deduce  this  from 
the  fact  that,  on  one  occasion,  when  lunching 
at  the  convent  of  the  Franciscans  at  Ara  Coeli  he 
brought  the  wood  for  the  fire  and  even  the  faggots 
to  light  it.  No  other  reason  can  have  influenced 
him  but  the  thought  of  sparing  his  host  some 
expense.  The  monks,  nevertheless,  were  fully  pre- 
pared for  his  visit. 

Sixtus  V  did  not  honour  with  his  presence — 
as  far  as  my  notes  tell  me — any  of  the  festivities 
of  the  Roman  world.  Cardinal  Montalto  and  the 
Pope's  sister,  Camilla,  sometimes  represented  the 
Peretti  family  at  social  gatherings. 

Comedians  were  the  great  success  of  the  even- 
ings, especially  when  the  piece  was  played  by  the 
company  of  the  Desiosi,  who  created  a  furore  in 
the  whole  of  Italy  and  found  grace  in  the  eyes 
of  Sixtus  V,  though  they  lived  in  constant  fear 
of  papal  censure. 

A  feast  consisted  of  a  dinner,  a  ball,  and  a 
comedy.  When  Ciriaco  Mattei  gave  a  feast  on 
the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  his  son,  Giovanni 
Battista,  the  list  of  the  guests  included  fourteen 
Cardinals,  who  ate  apart  with  Cardinal  Mattei, 
a  brother  of  the  host.  Sixty  ladies  of  the  Roman 
aristocracy  and  a  number  of  prelates  and  nobility 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  107 


occupied  six  tables,  all  being  served  at  once 
"with  great  order,  quietness,  silence,  and  splen- 
dour." Before  and  after  the  meal  there  was  some 
dancing,  and  at  the  end  the  comedy  of  Four 
Alike. 

After  a  dinner  given  by  the  Duke  of  Sora 
another  comedy  was  performed,  called  Love's 
Vagaries.  Its  leading  characters  were  an  Italian- 
ised Frenchman,  a  Norscino  (meat-packer),  a 
pedant,  a  Roman  servant  girl,  and  a  Neapolitan. 
These  figures  might  be  found  on  the  programme 
of  a  modern  Italian  burlesque.  In  this  play  satire 
was  chiefly  directed — how  little  the  world  has 
changed ! — against  voluntary  divorces,  and  lovers 
who  talk  too  much  about  their  love  affairs.  Be- 
sides this,  the  company  performed  pieces  on  topical 
subjects,  including  the  banished  brigands,  who 
had  not  been  punished  severely  enough. 

Montaigne  saw  the  Desiosi  Company  at  Pisa 
in  1581,  and  devotes  a  short  note  to  them  in  his 
account  of  his  journey  to  Italy.  In  Rome  they 
met  with  special  favour  from  Cardinal  Montalto, 
Sixtus  V's  nephew.  One  of  the  stars  of  the 
company,  Diana  Ponti,  went  to  France  later  on, 
as  d'Ancona  tells  us  in  the  excellent  notes  to  his 
edition  of  Montaigne's  travels. 

These  Italian  artists  of  the  stage  often  went 
to  France.  In  the  XVIIth  and  XVIIIth  centuries 
the  Italian  comedian  became  a  popular  personage 
in    France,    frequently   represented    in  prints, 


108 


S1XTINE  ROME 


paintings,  and  even  in  porcelain  figures.  Their 
characteristic  faces  and  exuberant  gestures  could 
not  fail  to  claim  the  attention  of  engravers, 
painters,  and  other  artists  of  the  time. 

Theatrical  compositions  also  wandered  from 
Italy  into  France.  In  the  time  of  Sixtus  V  a 
certain  kind  of  opera  existed  already.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  XVIIth  century  opera  in  fable  form 
was  very  popular  in  Rome. 

The  Desiosi  under  Sixtus  V  went  through 
times  of  danger  to  the  existence  of  their  company ; 
later  their  theatrical  performances  were  allowed 
through  the  intercession  of  the  Spanish  Ambas- 
sador. This  permission  was  accompanied  by  curious 
conditions  characteristic  of  the  time,  but  also  to  be 
found  in  the  history  of  the  theatre  in  other  countries. 

In  the  first  place,  performances  were  forbidden 
on  Fridays  in  Lent.  Part  of  the  profits  had  to 
be  handed  over  to  charitable  institutions,  and  the 
public  were  forbidden  to  throw  missiles  of  any 
kind  on  the  stage.  This  last  rule  fell  under  the 
general  "  Bando  "  for  Carnival,  in  which  Sixtus  V 
showed  great  severity.  Once  only,  when  an 
abundance  of  snow  covered  Rome  at  Christmas 
time,  the  Pope  failed  to  hinder  the  citizens  from 
amusing  themselves  with  the  mock  artillery  of 
snowballs. 

The  public  paid  two  "  giulj  "  for  a  tragedy. 
The  company  received  ten  scudi  for  an  evening 
when  they  played  in  a  private  house. 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  109 

One  of  the  most  interesting  panels  of  the 
Library  represents  Piazza  Colonna  in  the  days 
of  Sixtus  V.  A  great  deal  of  Rome  is  com- 
pressed into  the  background.  It  is  a  good  exer- 
cise for  eye  and  memory  to  distinguish  build- 
ings like  the  Temple  of  Neptune,  the  Collegio 
Romano  (not  completed  then),  San  Marco,  the 
Gesu,  etc. 

The  square  was  different  from  what  it  is  now- 
adays. The  column  of  Marcus  Aurelius  was 
there  of  course,  but  it  is  surprising  to  discover 
from  the  fresco  that  the  elegant  basin  of  the  foun- 
tain was  already  there  ;  it  was  thoroughly  restored 
after  Sixtus  V,  but  has  preserved  the  same  shape 
until  how,  still  presenting  some  unmistakable 
Sixtine  lions'  heads. 

The  scenery  on  this  panel  appeals  to  those 
who  know  how  to  appreciate  the  Rome  of  bygone 
days — such  as  the  pilgrims  and  the  first  pioneers 
of  European  tourism  saw  it.  Perhaps  the  squares 
of  the  Eternal  City  were  a  little  too  fre- 
quented by  domestic  animals  of  all  kinds,  but  the 
painters  thought  their  presence  perfectly  natural 
and  brought  in  the  whole  animal  population. 
Afterwards,  Clemens  VIII  issued  a  Bando 
(1597)  to  forbid  the  public  strolling  of  pigs ;  all 
vagrant  ones  to  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  people. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  painters  always 
endeavour  to  animate  street  life  by  means  of 
different  groups  in  attitudes  of  external  motion 


110 


SIXTINE  ROME 


and  full  of  expression.  In  old  prints  and  paint- 
ings single  persons  running  are  usually  depicted, 
who  salute  each  other  as  they  pass,  their  coats 
waving  in  the  wind.  Then,  standing  firmly  rooted 
to  the  spot,  groups  of  admiring  or  astonished 
people.  .  .  .  Here,  for  instance,  we  see  a 
group  looking  up  and  pointing  towards  the 
column,  doubtless  talking  about  Sixtus  V,  who 
had  restored  that  amazing  piece  of  antiquity. 
But,  in  reality,  the  busy  world  is  better  shown  by 
the  ordinary  life  in  its  usual  routine .  .  .  like  that 
woman  throwing  grain  before  the  chickens,  this 
man  driving  his  loaded  donkey  across  the  square, 
or  the  blacksmith  who  examines  the  hoof  of  a 
horse.  .  .  .  For  such  a  mixture  you  have  to  look 
at  the  fresco  of  Piazza  del  Popolo. 

Let  me  call  attention  to  the  curious  shape  of 
the  shops.  The  aperture  for  the  door  and  the 
shop  window  are  all  one  open  space.  In  old  engrav- 
ings of  Rome  that  form  is  general,  and  you  find 
them  still  in  country  places :  I  saw  them  in  Pales- 
trina.    The  original  example  is  at  Pompeii. 

On  all  these  frescoes  the  streets  are  not  paved  ; 
at  least  it  would  seem  not,  as  every  square  pre- 
sents on  a  smaller  scale  the  image  of  the  seven 
hills  without  a  trace  of  blocks.  And  yet  there 
must  have  been  a  pavement,  for,  at  a  certain 
moment  under  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V,  we  read  of 
the  proposal  to  replace  stones  by  bricks  in  the 
street  pavements.     One   of  the  reasons  given 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  111 

was  that  the  dwellers  of  the  street  would  suffer 
less  from  damp.  The  first  public  highway  to  be 
paved  was  the  Via  Felice  (Via  Sistina). 

Here  the  expense  (an  early  instance  of  a 
development  tax)  was  to  be  partly  paid  by  the 
inhabitants  along  the  street — the  so-called 
frontisti  (who  had  houses  facing  the  street). 
The  taxes  for  paving  the  other  highways  were  to 
be  paid  by  those  who  had  horses  and  carriages ! 
Under  Sixtus  V  a  street-cleaning  contract  was 
sold  to  some  private  enterprise,  but  before  that  it 
used  to  be  in  the  care  of  the  mayor  of  the  city. 

The  town  authorities  once  tried  to  forbid  the 
extension  of  laundry  ropes  across  the  streets.  But 
as  soon  as  Sixtus  heard  of  this  innovation  by  the 
"Maestri  di  Strada "  (masters  of  the  streets)  he 
sent  for  them  to  hear  his  opinion  about  the  matter, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  by-law  was  cancelled. 

The  Piazza  Colonna  fresco  gives  every  proof 
that  the  Roman  population  still  made  use  of  the 
old  privilege.  It  looks  like  a  laundry  parade 
intended  to  tease  every  Maestro  di  Strada ! 

Regulations  concerning  public  health,  public 
safety,  customs,  and  sumptuary  laws  were  quite 
advanced  in  the  days  of  Sixtus  V.  His  own 
precious  health  was  guarded  by  several  doctors 
from  le  Marche  (the  marshes),  that  part  of  the 
country  which  includes  the  provinces  of  Pesaro, 
Urbino,  Ancona,  Macerata,  and  Ascoli,  where 
Sixtus  was  born. 


112 


SIXT1NE  ROME 


One  of  these  doctors,  Durante,  who  remained 
famous  in  the  history  of  Italian  medical  science, 
wrote  a  little  book,  Treasure  of  Health,  dedicated 
to  Camilla  Peretti,  "  that  she  might  learn  how  to 
take  care  of  her  brother  the  Pope."  In  the  works 
of  this  same  doctor  there  is,  according  to  Marini's 
book  about  the  doctors  of  the  Popes,  a  first  men- 
tion of  the  introduction  of  tobacco  in  Italy, 
brought  there  by  Cardinal  Santacroce  from  his 
nunciature  in  Portugal — as  his  ancestors  had 
brought  to  Rome  the  wood  of  the  Holy  Cross 
(Santa  Croce). 

The  authorities  gave  great  attention  to  sanitary 
measures  intended  to  arrest  the  entrance  of  epi- 
demic diseases.  A  sharp  control  was  kept  at  the 
gates  of  the  cities,  as  well  as  at  the  ports,  against 
suspected  cases,  and  all  foreign  travellers  at  the  end 
of  the  XVIth  century  complained  that  they  were 
requested  by  the  gate  patrols  of  the  different  towns 
to  show  a  health  declaration ;  in  Rome  they  also 
suffered  the  confiscation  of  any  printed  books  they 
brought  with  them.  The  latter  were  handed 
over  to  the  Inquisition.  Montaigne  relates  amus- 
ing incidents  in  connection  with  his  little  travelling 
library. 

A  strong  example  of  quarantine  is  given  in  the 
time  of  Sixtus  V  by  the  harbour-master  of  Genoa. 
Galleys  bringing  money  from  Spain  were  sus- 
pected of  coming  from  infected  ports,  and  the 
sailors  were  not  allowed  to  touch  the  shore  before 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  113 


they  had  thrown  away  their  clothes,  put  on  new 
ones  purchased  in  the  city,  and  even  been  shaved — 
such  being  the  severe  laws  of  the  city. 

In  Rome  the  health  committee  kept  a  tight 
hold  of  a  class  of  dealers  whose  profits  were  made 
by  the  illness  of  others  :  the  druggists. 

Among  the  "  Bandi "  of  Sixtus  V,  we  find  one 
composed  by  the  "  protomedico,"  in  which  he  dis- 
tinguishes between  the  real  pharmacists  and  the 
barbers,  who  might  also  deal  in  drugs.  This  com- 
bination of  a  barber  and  a  cheap  surgeon  has 
extended  to  many  countries.  In  Rome  it  is 
even  classical,  from  the  times  of  Castor  and  Pollux, 
the  patrons  of  this  noble  and  numerous  guild. 
Until  quite  recently,  a  barber  at  the  corner  of  the 
Arco  di  Pantano  still  had  for  a  sign  a  picture  of  a 
bleeding  arm,  a  very  realistic  painting  in  oils.  Such 
signs  bring  to  mind  the  use  of  edged  tools  in  a 
barber's  hand  with  the  client's  consent  to  blood- 
shed and  may  yet  be  found  in  some  forgotten 
corner  of  Rome. 

The  "  protomedico "  made  it  difficult  for  the 
barber  by  stating  that  nobody  could  be  a  pharma- 
cist who  did  not  understand  sufficient  Latin.  He 
also  prescribed  that  they  should  use  the  best  sugar 
for  the  syrups  which  they  offered  to  the  suffering 
world. 

The  moral  health  of  the  public  was  also  cared 
for,  and  the  Bandi  of  Sixtus  V  touch  many  vices 
of  the  time.    There  are  Bandi  against  gambling, 


114 


SIXTINE  ROME 


slandering  in  words  or  pictures — the  editors  of 
Avvisi  find  here  a  severe  warning — and  against 
betting. 

The  Pope  was  specially  set  against  the  vice  of 
gambling,  indulged  in  on  every  occasion  by  the 
Romans  and  regularly  exercised  by  the  bankers. 
The  people  gambled  on  the  most  incredible  sub- 
jects, taking  tickets  in  the  great  lotteries.  They 
would  bet,  for  instance,  on  the  names  of  future 
Cardinals  ;  whether  the  Pope  would  go  to  Mont- 
alto  or  not.  .  .  .  The  Pope  amused  himself,  at 
least  so  the  Avvisi  tell  us,  by  looking  over  a 
copy  of  the  lists  which  circulated  in  Banchi — the 
business  quarter  of  Rome — containing  different 
quotations  for  the  Cardinals  he  might  intend  to 
nominate.  Some  referred  to  important  personages 
whom  he  had  never  had  in  his  mind. 

The  betting  system  reached  its  highest  point 
between  two  pontificates.  From  the  moment  that 
a  Pope  died,  lists  began  to  be  circulated  with  the 
names  of  different  Cardinals  who  might  possibly 
have  a  chance  of  receiving  the  tiara.  The  numbers 
changed  every  day,  and  the  lists  were  sent  daily 
from  Rome  to  the  different  courts  of  Italy. 

In  the  same  desire  to  anticipate  the  future, 
great  abuse  was  made  of  astrology.  A  law 
enacted  by  Sixtus  V  forbids  palmistry  and  other 
speculations  on  popular  credulity.  When  one  of 
the  numerous  astrologers  did  not  obey  this  regula- 
tion he  spent  some  unpleasant  hours  exposed  on 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  115 

the  pillory,  and  the  public  called  him  "an 
astrologer  who  could  not  foresee  his  own  fate 
any  more  than  the  fate  of  others." 

Some  superstition  was  attached  to  the  person  of 
Sixtus  himself.  Wednesday  was  his  lucky  day. 
Even  the  sound  sense  of  Domenico  Fontana  ad- 
mitted this  little  bit  of  astrology  in  his  solemn 
book  about  the  works  of  his  sovereign  master.  He 
notes  that  Sixtus  was  made  a  Bishop,  a  Cardinal, 
elected  Pope,  and  enthroned  all  on  a  W ednesday. 

An  interesting  testimony  about  life  in  Rome 
in  Sixtus  V's  time  is  given  by  a  Dutchman  who 
travelled  in  Italy  and  studied  the  Eternal  City 
very  thoroughly,  in  1587  and  1588.  An  account 
of  his  travels  has  been  published  in  the  Archivio 
delta  Societa  Romana  di  Storia  Patria.  This 
Dutchman,  Buchellius,  remarks  that  the  Romans 
dressed  quite  simply,  as  was  also  observed  by 
Montaigne.  Severe  laws  against  luxury  were  set 
forth  in  a  papal  bull  issued  by  Sixtus.  The  list  of 
wines  and  foods  given  by  Buchellius  as  being  com- 
mon in  his  days  still  corresponds  to  a  certain  extent 
with  the  Roman  bill-of-fare  of  our  time,  and  is 
already  called  by  him  "  sparing  "  (parco).  Vermi- 
celli and  macaroni  have  a  place  on  the  menus. 

Writing  about  women,  he  states  that  they  were 
kept  in  the  house  until  twelve  years  of  age,  and 
were  then  soon  married,  not  to  please  themselves, 
but  according  to  the  choice  of  their  parents.  He 
evidently  regrets  the  danger  attached  to  kissing 


116 


SIXTINE  ROME 


a  young  girl  or  a  lady.  "That  which,  for  our 
women,  is  an  honour  is  for  them  considered  a 
shame,"  he  says,  with  a  sigh.  This  was  one  of  this 
writer's  weak  spots ;  he  did  not  share  the  remark- 
able wisdom  of  Michel  de  Montaigne  in  his 
observations  on  the  weaker  sex,  and  on  this  point 
their  travelling  notes  are  diametrically  opposed  to 
each  other. 

There  were  no  lady  travellers  at  that  time  to 
tell  us  anything  about  the  men  of  Sixtus'  days. 
If  there  had  been,  they  would  no  doubt  have 
taken  some  interest  in  an  important  subject  of  dis- 
cussion :  whether  men  should  or  not  wear  a  beard. 

An  excellent  contemporary  writer,  Bartolomeo 
Catena,  strenuously  defended  the  beard  against 
the  invading  custom  of  clean-shaving.  He  says 
in  one  of  his  letters :  "  It  is  well  that  those  who 
have  to  lead  and  govern  should  have  a  long  and 
fine  beard.  And  I  can  assure  you  that  the 
government  of  cities  and  provinces  has  been  given 
to  more  than  one  prelate  because  he  had  a  long 
and  fine  beard,  otherwise  he  were  not  worthy  the 
honour." 

Amongst  the  measures  taken  by  Sixtus  V  for 
public  improvement  is  one  which  I  have  already 
mentioned  :  the  bringing  together  of  the  beggars  in 
a  poor-house.  One  of  the  frescoes  in  the  Library, 
next  to  that  of  the  Piazza  Colonna,  represents  a 
full  view  of  this  gathering.  Nowadays  the  poor- 
house  is  reduced  to  one  block  in  a  curious  corner 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  117 


of  Rome  near  the  Ponte  Sisto.  Parts  of  the 
ancient  building  may  yet  be  seen  in  the  high 
palazzi,  between  the  Monte  di  Pieta  and  the  old 
bridge. 

The  scenery  of  the  fresco  is  again  typical.  We 
see  there  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  engaged  in 
serious  conversation,  next  to  a  crowd  of  poor 
Romans.  A  small  realistic  incident  is  the  dog 
that  barks  at  the  beggar.  Even  dogs  have  their 
social  traditions ! 

I  am  not  sure  whether  a  couple  in  the  back- 
ground, handling  wooden  sticks,  is  playing  or 
fighting.  Their  pastime  might  be  one  or  the 
other:  fighting  some  mock  battle  with  their 
crutches,  or  perhaps  playing  a  kind  of  hockey, 
which  is  also  represented  on  a  fresco  opposite  this 
one,  with  the  fountain  of  Moses. 

The  bridge  built  by  Sixtus  IV,  and  named  after 
him  "  Ponte  Sisto,"  also  appears  on  this  fresco. 
For  one  moment  I  hoped  to  find  here  an  early 
specimen  of  Roman  folklore,  but  I  am  not  sure 
enough  about  the  necessary  ingredients  of  the 
story.  They  say  it  "brings  luck  to  see,  passing 
on  the  Ponte  Sisto,  a  loaded  ass,  a  priest,  and  a 
soldier."  Perhaps  more  is  required  for  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  wish.  This  certainly  does  not  seem 
to  be  enough. 

Ponte  Sisto  was  naturally  connected  with 
Sixtus  V  by  the  Romans,  and  an  old  story  is 
related  that  the  Pope  wished  to  pass  the  river 


118 


SIXTINE  ROME 


in  disguise,  before  there  was  a  bridge.  The  boat- 
man having  asked  him  for  an  exorbitant  price, 
Sixtus  punished  him  by  a  heavy  fine,  which  was 
to  be  used  in  building  a  bridge,  thus  frus- 
trating the  dishonesty  of  ferrymen.  The  popular 
imagination  could  not  admit  that  Sixtus  V,  who 
had  built  so  much,  should  not  have  at  least  one 
bridge  to  his  credit.  (He  really  had  started  build- 
ing one  over  the  remnants  of  an  old  Roman 
bridge,  but  far  off,  north  of  Rome,  over  the  Tiber 
at  Borghetto,  on  the  road  which  the  pilgrims  used 
to  take  towards  Loreto.)  The  people  chose  to 
attribute  to  him  one  of  the  most  interesting 
bridges,  the  Ponte  Quattro  Capi  (Four  Heads). 
I  take  for  the  following  story  the  authority  of 
the  Roman  folklorist  Zanazzo,  who  relates  it  in 
true  Roman  style  in  the  second  volume  of  his 
very  entertaining  collection,  Tradizioni  Popolari 
Romcme,  published  in  1907  : — 

"As  you  all  know,  Sixtus  V,  who  reigned  five 
years,  built  five  streets,  five  fountains,  five  obelisks, 
five  bridges,  and  left  five  millions  in  Castello." 

The  reader  should  know  that  Castello  in  Rome 
means  Castel  St.  Angelo,  and  that  Palazzo  means 
the  Palazzo  Apostolico,  the  Vatican. 

"  One  of  the  bridges  he  had  built  was  called 
'  Quattro  Capi.'  Do  you  want  to  know  why  it  was 
so  called  ? 

"  Well,  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  build  up  that 
bridge,  which  was  on  the  point  of  falling  in.  For 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  119 


this  work,  four  good  architects  were  employed  ; 
while  they  were  at  their  work  they  started  quarrel- 
ling, one  of  them  nearly  being  killed. 

"When  Sixtus  heard  of  this,  he  did  not  waste 
much  time  in  having  them  all  arrested  and  be- 
headed on  the  bridge,  where  their  heads  were 
placed  before  the  public. 

"  After  some  time  he  ordered  the  heads  to  be 
carved  in  stone  and  placed  there,  thus  giving  the 
name  to  the  bridge  4  Quattro  Capi.'  " 

This  anecdote  gives  the  number  five,  as  it  has 
been  explained  in  the  learned  Latin  book  of  one  of 
Sixtus'  contemporaries.  Besides,  it  contains  an 
allusion  to  the  executions  made  on  Ponte  Sant' 
Angelo,  so  frequent  under  Sixtus  V's  reign,  that  an 
ironical  observer  of  the  time  says,  M  This  year  there 
have  been  more  heads  on  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo  than 
watermelons  in  Banchi."  The  four  heads  are 
explained  and  the  good  people  of  Rome  are 
satisfied ! 

The  Tiber  Island  is  also  shown  in  this  fresco 
still  looking  very  mediaeval  witli  its  high  towers. 
Trastevere  also  looks  warlike.  In  these  days  we  have 
to  seek  for  those  towers  in  Rome.  Not  many  are 
left,  but  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  Eternal  City  must 
have  presented  the  same  appearance  as  does  now 
"San  Gimignano  delle  belle  Torri,"  the  Pompeii 
of  the  Italian  Middle  Ages. 

Along  the  Tiber,  watermills  give  a  more  in- 
dustrial aspect  to  the  scenery  of  river  life.  In 


120 


S1XTINE  ROME 


olden  times  the  Tiber  was  certainly  a  more  interest- 
ing stream  than  the  present  canal.  Rowing  and 
swimming  races  and  even  the  famous  duck-catch- 
ing must  have  taken  place  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
city,  between  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo  and  Ponte  Sisto. 

Most  of  these  water  sports  are  now  banished 
further  up  the  stream,  above  Ponte  Margherita, 
where  on  summer  days  the  jiumaioli  (river- 
men)  are  in  full  swim,  performing  fine  gymnastics 
and  celebrating  quaint  feasts,  worthy  of  a  poem 
by  Ovid,  like  the  one  in  which  he  describes 
a  popular  festival  on  the  Tiber.1 

Roman  life  is  also  portrayed  on  the  Piazza  del 
Popolo  fresco.  Take  the  hunter  returning  from 
outside  the  gates,  as  a  more  or  less  symbolical 
figure.  The  pleasure  of  shooting  makes  in  Rome 
the  strongest  connection  between  town  and 
country.  In  the  city,  the  sportsman  dons  his 
hunting  suit  early  in  the  morning.  At  night 
he  will  bring  back  a  sunburnt  complexion,  much 
mud,  and  a  bag  filled  by  fortune  and  his  own 
ability. 

In  the  time  of  Sixtus  V,  the  art  of  catching 
wild  animals  had  reached  a  high  point.  Human 
intelligence  had  to  invent  where  instruments — fire- 
arms or  arrows — failed.  Hunting  scenes,  showing 
the  hunter  and  his  companions  trying  most  com- 

1  This  fragment  can  easily  be  found  in  Peck  and  ArrowsmitVs 
Roman  Life  in  Latin  Prose  and  Verse  (American  Book  Company), 
much  to  be  recommended  to  the  attention  of  all  who  like  to  refresh 
their  Latin  in  Latium. 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  121 


plicated  traps  on  innocent  birds,  fill  open  spaces  in 
the  decoration  of  country  houses.  The  different 
animals  in  the  Loggie  of  Raphael  have  been  ex- 
plained by  Leo  X's  strong  inclination  for  the  chase. 

An  engraver  of  Dutch  origin,  Stradanus  by 
name,  residing  in  Florence  during  the  second  half 
of  the  XVIth  century,  has  left  reminiscences  of 
several  hunting-traps  in  a  series  of  drawings.  In 
one  of  these  the  hunters  stand  behind  a  cow 
covered  with  drapery.  A  fine  set  of  tapestries 
was  executed,  after  Stradanus'  drawings,  for  the 
shooting-lodge  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
at  Poggio  Cajano,  showing  all  the  possible 
tricks  of  the  trade.  Again  we  have  the  decora- 
tion of  the  rooms  distinctly  connected  with  the 
purposes  of  the  building,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
intended  as  a  subject  of  learned  comparison  and 
conversation.  The  same  drawings  were  reproduced 
in  the  North  in  1570,  and  again  and  again  in  later 
years  by  Galle,  in  a  set  of  prints  ;  a  cheaper  way  of 
bringing  them  to  the  knowledge  of  the  sportsmen 
of  the  civilised  world.1  There  is  also  an  extensive 
literature  of  all  kinds  of  handbooks  for  hunters 
beginning  with  the  XVIth  century. 

The  favourite  shooting-ground  was  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  Rome.  We  still  read  of 
hunting  parties  at  Magliana — the  famous  castle  of 

1  Stradanus  te  Florence,  1553-1605,  by  J.  A.  F.  Orbaan,  p.  52. 
The  drawings  were  reproduced  in  the  Burlington  Magazine  of  1903  and 
1904. 


122 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  Popes,  who  were  devoted  to  hunting  in  the 
XVIth  century. 

Sixtus  V's  relative,  Cardinal  Montalto,  and  an- 
other, Cardinal  de'  Medici,  sometimes  went  to  that 
typical  spot  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  This 
Cardinal,  Ferdinando  de'  Medici,  the  future  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  hunted  chiefly  in  the  more 
distant  part  of  the  country  between  the  Lake  of 
Bracciano  and  the  sea.  On  one  occasion,  he 
returned  from  the  chase  at  Cervetri,  where  there 
was  a  fine  shooting-box,  the  property  of  Paolo 
Giordano  Orsini,  Duke  of  Bracciano,  with  fifty-one 
wild  pigs,  thirty-four  wild  goats,  and  thousands  of 
birds.  He  provided  the  whole  court  with  venison, 
remaining  only  for  some  important  religious  cere- 
mony, and  then  rushing  back  to  his  sport,  having 
left  for  that  purpose  his  dogs  and  weapons  at 
Bracciano. 

Sixtus  V  was  too  much  wrapt  up  in  his  building 
plans,  and  also  probably  too  old,  to  indulge  in  the 
fatiguing  pleasures  of  the  chase.  He  did  not  even 
care  to  follow  the  hounds  or  to  look  on  as  did 
Leo  X. 

Of  other  exercises,  we  have  only  one  ex- 
ample in  the  paintings  of  the  Library,  in  the 
second  room,  the  entrance  to  the  so-called  "  secret 
library,"  which  once  filled  those  rooms,  all  marked 
with  the  armorial  bearings  and  the  works  of 
Sixtus  V.  (Segreto  signifies  select  or  private — 
the  best  part  of  something,  put  aside  for  the  use  of 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  123 


the  master.  We  have  a  clear  example  of  this  in  the 
"  secret  garden  "  of  a  Roman  villa — a  choice  bit  of 
ground,  enclosed  and  separated  from  the  neglected 
fields  around  it.) 

Opposite  each  other  are  represented,  in  the 
fresco,  a  beautiful  view  of  Rome  and  a  tour- 
nament. Until  late  in  the  XVIIth  century, 
tournaments  remained  in  vogue  in  Rome,  and 
many  books  have  been  written  about  this  favourite 
amusement  of  the  Italian  nobility.  A  number  of 
fine  prints  bring  to  our  mind  the  great  tourna- 
ments on  the  Piazza  Navona. 

The  "teatro  del  Belvedere"  under  Sixtus  V 
had  been  divided  into  two  parts,  thereby  reducing 
the  space  set  aside  for  tournaments.  Some  sym- 
bolism of  the  spirit  of  the  times  is  seen  here  ;  the 
building  devoted  to  science  dividing,  by  an  insur- 
mountable barrier,  the  sporting  ground  of  the 
knights. 

The  series  of  Sixtus  V's  works,  undisturbed  by 
a  few  broken  lances,  goes  on  its  way.  Canonisa- 
tions take  place  in  cathedrals  and  churches,  and 
other  pontifical  ceremonies  continue ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  consecration  of  the  "  Papal  Chapel "  in 
Santa  Sabina. 

Sixtus  V  had  restored  this  highly  interesting 
basilica  on  the  Aventine  by  pulling  down  a  wall 
from  the  centre  and  repairing  the  roof  and  pave- 
ment. An  inscription  in  the  church  refers  to  this 
work.    The  remarkable  part  about  this  tablet  lies 


124 


SIXTINE  ROME 


in  its  imitation  of  the  writing  and  abbreviations 
of  early  Christian  inscriptions.  Here  the  name  of 
Baronius  may  afford  some  explanation.  Soon 
after  Sixtus  V,  this  famous  annalist  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  with  Ciacconius  the  biographer 
of  the  Popes  and  Bosio  the  archaeologist,  visited 
the  Catacombs  with  the  object  of  making  investi- 
gations. I  do  not  believe  I  am  saying  too  much 
when  I  refer  to  the  inscription  in  Santa  Sabina  as 
a  practical  application  of  the  first  conquests  of  a 
scientific  Christian  archaeology. 

Like  other  men  of  genius,  Sixtus  built  up  with 
one  hand  and  destroyed  with  the  other.  There 
we  have  the  Lateran  of  the  Middle  Ages — a  fresco 
in  the  smaller  room  of  the  library — which  he 
demolished,  and  a  large  view  of  St.  Peter's  as  it 
should  have  been  after  the  original  plan,  and  the 
erection  of  the  obelisk,  with  its  entire  setting. 
Each  of  these  frescoes  is  a  document,  eagerly 
studied  by  the  historians  of  St.  Peter's,  of  the 
former  Lateran  and  of  Nero's  Circus. 

In  the  smaller  panels  are  shown  :  Civitavecchia, 
provided  with  a  water  supply  ;  Sixtus'  birthplace, 
Montalto,  enriched  with  public  works  ;  the  Dios- 
curi of  the  Quirinal.  Again  and  again  symbolism  : 
the  crowned  heads  of  Europe  listening  to  the 
Sixtine  Lion;  the  same  Lion  in  another  picture 
watching  the  safe  with  its  immense  treasure,  and 
surrounded  by  other  animals,  symbolising  the 
Cardinals  who  held  the  keys  to  those  millions. 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  125 


The  treasure  safe  and  the  Lion,  with  other 
Sixtine  emblems,  still  exist  in  the  coat  of  arms 
of  the  "  Rione  Borgo "  (the  fourteenth  district 
called  Borgo),  made  in  1586  out  of  the  Citta 
Leonina. 

This  safe  is  mentioned  in  the  account-books  of 
Sixtus  in  the  Vatican  Archives,  Domenico  Fontana 
being  entrusted  with  the  making  of  this  big  article 
of  the  papal  household  ;  the  workmen's  wages  for 
bringing  the  money  from  the  old  to  the  new 
treasury  are  also  entered. 

Behold  the  celebrated  Fountain  of  Moses,  re- 
presented in  the  state-room,  not  in  its  most  flatter- 
ing features.  The  panel  shows  Porta  Pia  in 
simple  form  in  the  distance.  The  scenery  includes 
the  usual  figures  of  the  man  with  an  ass,  the 
beggar  holding  out  his  palm,  the  hockey  or  polo 
teams.  Note  the  fresco  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore 
with  its  old  facade  towards  San  Giovanni.  The 
Pope  is  amongst  the  group  on  the  left  hand  ;  the 
youth  standing  near  him  may  be  Michele  Peretti. 
In  conclusion,  study  the  Roman  map  with  all  the 
Sixtine  works  over  the  door  from  the  Libreria 
Segreta  to  the  show-room.  The  document 
speaks  for  itself. 

Some  of  the  manuscripts,  now  on  public  view, 
were  curiosities  before  Sixtus  V  brought  the 
Library  to  its  present  place. 

Montaigne  has  recorded  his  visit  to  the  V atican 
Library  in  1581,  and  gives  a  description  which 


126 


SIXT1NE  ROME 


corresponds  perfectly  with  Pansa's  documents 
written  nine  years  later. 

The  Library  had  retained  its  mediaeval  aspect, 
the  books  being  chained  to  the  desks  and  also  kept 
in  trunks.  Some  were  taken  out  to  be  shown  to 
Montaigne,  who  looked  in  the  first  place  for  his 
favourite  authors,  Seneca  and  Plutarch.  The 
latter  s  work  was  most  probably  shown  him  in  a 
manuscript  bought  by  the  famous  traveller  and 
archaeologist  Cyriacus  of  Ancona,  who  had  paid 
a  very  large  sum  for  it  at  the  monastery  of 
Mount  Athos. 

He  also  saw  the  manuscript  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  and  remarked  that  Thomas  wrote  a  bad 
hand,  worse  than  his  own.  Of  course  the  book  of 
Henry  VIII  against  Luther,  sent  by  this  monarch 
to  Leo  X,  which  had  been  robbed  of  its  rich 
binding  in  the  pillage  after  the  siege  of  Rome, 
interested  him  deeply,  as  did  also  the  illustrated 
manuscript  of  Virgil. 

He  says  that  it  was  generally  easy  to  see  and 
even  to  use  the  Vatican  Library.  He  had  been 
discouraged  at  first  by  the  French  Ambassador, 
who  had  not  known  the  way  to  obtain  an  entrance 
to  the  library,  probably  as  he  did  not  desire  to 
"pay  his  court"  to  the  librarian,  Cardinal  Sir- 
letus. 

Sirletus,  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  the 
XVIth  century,  had  been  appointed  Cardinal  Libra- 
rian in  1570.    He  died  in  the  beginning  of  Sixtus 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  127 

V's  reign,  in  October,  1585  ;  on  his  tomb  in  the 
church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Panisperna  he  is  called  "a 
patron  of  the  learned  and  of  the  poor."  Touch- 
ing examples  were  told  of  his  charitable  spirit,  and, 
besides  his  goodness  of  heart,  he  was  known  for 
other  fine  qualities,  being  called  also  a  "  walking 
library "  by  Marcus  Antonius  Muretus,  certainly 
not  an  easy  critic  of  learning.  On  many  occasions 
he  was  seen  to  take  off  his  own  shoes  in  order 
to  give  them  to  the  poor,  and  in  winter  time 
would  bring  home  young  faggot  hawkers,  make 
them  comfortable,  teach  them  the  catechism,  and 
afterwards  buy  their  bundles  of  firewood.  These 
anecdotes  are  like  many  others  from  the  life  of 
St.  Carlo  Borromeo  and  St.  Filippo  Nero,  a  most 
popular  Roman  saint,  who  even  won  the 
heart  of  Goethe.  One  of  the  stories  they 
tell  about  him  points  again  to  the  general 
sympathy  prevailing  in  Italy  for  children.  He 
took  a  crowd  of  boys  out  with  him  in  the 
Campagna.  When  they  made  too  much  noise 
he  asked  them  to  stop  if  they  could,  but,  if  they 
could  not,  to  continue.  This  anecdote  betrays  real 
Italian  reserve  and  sympathy. 

Cardinal  Sirletus  had  collected  for  himself  ;i 
beautiful  and  important  library  of  books  and 
manuscripts.  After  his  death,  his  collection  was 
for  a  moment  in  danger  of  being  exported.  The 
King  of  Spain,  having  been  notified  by  a  clever 
agent  in  Rome,  became  eager  to  buy  the  whole 


128 


SIXTfNE  ROME 


library  for  his  own  collection  in  the  Escurial.  But 
Ascanio  Colonna,  a  Roman  Cardinal,  purchased 
the  entire  treasure,  and  placed  it  in  his  own  palace. 
After  his  demise  it  was  again  in  great  danger  of 
exportation  to  the  Ambrosiana  in  Milan,  only  being 
saved  by  the  timely  interference  of  the  Duke  of 
Altemps,  who  recovered  it  for  his  own  house. 
Once  again  it  was  in  peril  in  the  middle  of  the 
XVIth  century,  when  it  was  nearly  sold  to  the 
Queen  of  Sweden.  This  time  it  was  Pope  Alex- 
ander VIII  who  kept  it  in  Italy,  buying  it  for 
his  house  "  Ottoboni,"  and,  from  this  Ottoboni 
family,  the  manuscripts  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Vatican  in  1740.  They  have  had  a  better 
destiny  than  the  printed  collection  of  Cardinal 
Sirletus,  lately  sold  at  two  auctions  in  London  and 
Rome,  and  now  quite  dispersed. 

The  history  of  one  part  of  the  Vatican  Library  is 
told  here  very  concisely,  demonstrating  that  the 
care  given  by  Sixtus  V  to  this  share  of  his  papal 
treasure  was  not  in  vain.  Kings  and  queens  dis- 
puted with  princes  of  the  world,  and  of  the  Church, 
for  possession  of  the  contents  of  those  solid  cedar- 
wood  bindings — the  Ottoboniana. 

Since  the  death  of  Sixtus  V,  the  papal  seat  of 
learning  has  become  more  than  doubled.  The 
Heidelberg  Library,  the  Palatina,  has  been  brought 
to  the  V atican  ;  the  Urbino  Library  containing 
the  splendid  illuminated  manuscripts  now  shown 
to  the  public  in  Sixtus  V's  room ;  the  collec- 


THE  VATICAN  LIBRARY  129 


tion  of  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  who  became 
a  real  Roman  and  died  in  the  Eternal  City ;  and 
finally  the  library  of  the  Barberini  with  its  manu- 
scripts, papers,  and  the  wainscoting  of  the  entire 
room,  which  has  now  been  reconstructed  in  the 
Vatican. 

If  Sixtus  V  could  arise,  step  out  of  his  portrait, 
and  walk  around,  he  would  marvel  at  the  aisles  of 
cases  with  manuscripts,  joining  to  the  right  and 
left  his  "  secret  library  "  situated  at  the  end  of  the 
vast  room,  and  containing  all  his  works.  The 
system  has  been  kept  up — copied  from  a  classical 
Roman  description — of  having  the  low  bookcases 
perfectly  closed  against  dust  and  damp. 

Downstairs,  in  a  large  room,  he  would  find  a 
beautifully  equipped  reference  library  leading  to 
the  study-room  of  the  archives,  where  a  monu- 
mental coat  of  arms  in  the  ceiling  reminds  us 
again  of  Sixtus  V.  On  the  wall  of  the  studying- 
room  of  the  Library  may  be  recognised  a  faded 
Sixtine  coat  of  arms,  and,  around,  the  portraits  of 
all  the  Cardinal  Librarians,  including  Sirletus, 
Carafa,  and  Baronius. 

The  Pope  on  his  resurrection  walk  would  chiefly 
be  pleased  to  see  his  iron  law  written  on  the  same 
marble  tablet  at  the  library  entrance ;  and,  on  the 
other,  the  remembrance  of  his  foundation,  read 
with  reverence  by  the  thousands  who  pass  the 
doors,  which  Leo  XIII  opened  to  the  studying 
world. 

K 


IV 


DOMENICO  FONTANA 

TT  is  a  pity  that  Vasari  did  not  write  the  bio- 
J-  graphy  of  Domenico  Fontana.  The  architect 
came  into  notoriety  too  late  to  figure  in  the  book 
of  the  painter-architect,  or  rather  "  art  historian," 
Vasari. 

The  style  of  Vasari's  writing  would  have  suited 
the  period  of  architecture,  inspired  in  part  by 
Domenico  Fontana. 

The  Barocco,  with  its  great  play  of  light  and 
shade,  is  already  in  the  Vite  (Lives)  of  the  ex- 
cellent writer  of  Arezzo. 

Everybody  who  wants  to  acquire  a  deeper 
knowledge  of  Italy  should  read  Vasari.  His 
whole  being  and  writing  is  the  expression  of  a 
time  which  is  perhaps  more  interesting  than  any : 
the  first  half  of  the  XVIth  century ;  and  he  him- 
self is  really  a  representative  Italian  of  a  very 
fine  type. 

In  active  life,  Vasari  would  have  been  most 
antagonistic  to  Fontana,  but  would  have  treated 
him  well  if  he  could  have  finished  his  biography 
with  a  tombstone.  They  would  have  been  stumb- 
ling-blocks in  each  other's  way,  both  having  enough 
activity  to  exhaust  the  means  of  a  Maecenas. 

13 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA  131 


Incredible  energy  and  fertility  are  characteristic 
of  the  great  men  of  Italy  as  well  as  of  any  country 
in  the  world.  For  them,  the  dolce  far  nicnte  could 
only  be  the  device  :  Repos  ailleurs. 

Vastness  of  conception  and  steadiness  of  execu- 
tion are  to  be  found  in  great  and  small  proportions 
equally  in  the  works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Giambattista  de  Rossi,  or  of  Domenico  Fontana, 
Bernini,  Piranesi,  and  Baronius. 

To  approach  the  productions  of  any  of  these 
men  means  many  steps  towards  a  better  under- 
standing of  Italy,  which  rises  in  the  estimation 
of  our  time,  as  we  measure  merit  from  work 
accomplished.  How  often  we  regret  that  an 
artist  of  genius  left  but  a  few  paintings,  a  single 
opera,  or  one  little  volume  of  poetry,  and  reproach 
him  with  the  laziness  which  hindered  the  out- 
pouring of  more  beauty.  In  judging  artists  we 
must  act  delicately,  though  we  are  not  unjust  in 
condemning  their  lost  time  and  in  longing  for 
their  unborn  creations.  Supposing  Handel  had 
written  nothing  but  his  Largo — only  a  hyperajsthete 
could  forgive  him  the  other  hours  of  his  life. 

A  common  misunderstanding  often  leads  us 
astray  in  judging  many  things  Italian.  There  are 
surprises.  For  instance,  the  foreigner  gasps  in 
astonishment  to  hear  that  Raphael  died  so  young, 
though  hundreds  of  his  works  fill  the  museums 
of  Europe,  even  wandering  to  the  United  States. 

A  few  names  that  I  have  already  quoted  are 


132 


SIXTINE  ROME 


easy  and  instructive  examples.  Walk  into  any 
library  of  importance  and  look  up  the  works  oi 
the  archaeologist  de  Rossi ;  of  the  annalist  Baronius ; 
of  the  omnis  homo  Leonardo,  and  you  will  at 
once  become  convinced  of  their  labours  by  the 
numbers  of  folio  volumes.  Piranesi's  plates  still 
fill  the  Calcografia  Reale,  and  Bernini's  works 
bloom  in  every  corner  of  Rome.  As  for  Vasari, 
anyone  who  has  studied  the  history  of  art  beyond 
the  most  summary  catalogue  has  at  least  met  with 
his  name.  In  Germany,  England,  and  France 
his  reputation  has  been  growing  within  the  last 
ten  years,  and  his  personality  has  been  studied 
from  a  literary  and  historical  standpoint,  his 
Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Architects,  translated 
in  the  three  languages  of  those  countries.  His 
treatises  on  art  are  also  sharing  in  this  awakened 
interest.  In  their  turn  will  also  come  his  ' 6  letters/' 
which  are  the  surest  proof  of  his  unceasing 
activity.  Lately  his  private  archives  have  been 
discovered — artistic  circles  are  looking  forward 
with  great  interest  to  the  publication  of  these 
documents. 

We  have  no  such  collection  from  Domenico 
Fontana.  The  correspondence  of  the  Italian 
artists,  a  pure  source  of  knowledge  about  their 
careers  and  intimate  life,  is  copious  in  some  cases, 
precious  in  others,  and  often  leaves  a  void  when 
it  would  have  interested  us  specially.  What  we 
have  is  published,  but  scattered  over  many  books, 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA  133 


some  of  which  are  themselves  old  and  rare,  so 
much  so  that  it  is  not  easy  to  give  statistics. 

Fontana  has  left  written  reminiscences  of  him- 
self, not  unlike  what  greater  artists  of  his  country 
have  done  before  and  after  him.  While  most  of 
the  others  mentioned  their  own  works  in  some 
dissertation  on  art,  he  went  straight  to  the  subject, 
writing  and  printing  a  book  in  folio,  describing 
in  detail  his  career  as  architect  of  Sixtus  V.  The 
first  edition  was  published  in  the  year  1590. 
Copies  of  this  book  are  not  rare,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  find  them  complete,  including  the  large  en- 
graving of  the  obelisk's  erection  and  all  the 
scenery  around.  This  print  is  valued  highly,  as 
it  represents  St.  Peter's  in  a  former  state ;  but  it 
has  long  ago  been  torn  away  from  most  of  the 
copies  and  sold  separately.  Even  without  this 
precious  print  the  book  is  worth  having,  for  it 
contains  a  large  number  of  other  interesting 
engravings.  The  text  is  Italian  ;  the  style,  though 
influenced  by  the  epoch  and  written  in  the  solemn 
tone  of  an  address  to  the  Pope,  reveals  the  man 
through  the  beautiful  print. 

We  meet  him  in  effigy  on  the  title-page.  There 
he  is,  behind  his  working  desk,  with  the  model  of 
the  obelisk  of  St.  Peter's  carefully  upright  in  his 
hands.  He  has  donned  an  elegant  dress  without 
forgetting  his  heavy  chain  of  "  Cavaliere."  In  a 
symbolic  gesture,  his  thumb  holds  the  chain  for- 
ward towards  the  obelisk,  for  they  belong  to  each 


134 


SIXTINE  ROME 


other  in  his  life's  history.  Painters,  poets,  and 
architects  of  the  XVIth  and  XVIIth  centuries,  when 
presented  with  such  high  marks  of  esteem,  never 
left  them  at  home  when  their  portrait  was  to  be 
painted  for  posterity ! 

The  engraver  has  not  endeavoured  to  make 
him  handsome.  The  characteristic  nose  points 
downwards  with  the  same  melancholy  effect  as 
in  the  picture  of  Pietro  Facchetti  in  the  Vatican 
Library.  All  the  lines  in  this  face  run  down- 
wards :  the  real  type  of  a  man  who  has  known 
a  struggle  for  life  and  worked  with  tireless  energy 
under  high  pressure  in  the  busiest  of  all  pontifical 
reigns.  His  features  are  not  more  cheerful  than 
the  style  of  architecture  of  Sixtine  Rome.  He 
looks  old,  as  his  architecture  must  look  to  later 
generations.  The  inscription  around  the  portrait 
tells  us  that  this  man,  born  in  Mili  in  the  diocese 
of  Como,  architect  to  His  Holiness,  is  only  forty-six 
years  of  age. 

The  portrait  has  been  arranged  like  a  picture  in 
the  frame  of  a  large  window  in  Barocco  style. 
Italy  led  the  world  in  this  kind  of  title-page  until 
late  in  the  XVIIth  century.  The  best  artists  were 
called  upon  to  design  similar  pages  in  the  form  of 
windows  and  gates  peopled  with  allegorical  figures 
and  a  happy  crowd  of  playing  Cupids  with  coats 
of  arms  and  festoons  of  tools  and  instruments. 
Fine  examples  can  be  seen  in  the  Plantin-Muretus 
Museum  of  Antwerp — drawings  of  Rubens — and 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  135 


amongst  the  works  of  the  best  engravers,  who 
drew  their  own  designs  for  plates. 

In  the  frontispiece  of  Fontana's  book  even  the 
young  genii  look  pensive  as  they  hold  the  ends 
of  the  heavy  festoons  arrayed  over  an  architect's 
desk,  ending,  merely  lor  the  sake  of  that  period's 
style,  in  a  bunch  of  fruit.  The  coats  of  arms  on 
the  top  belong  to  Sixtus  V,  without  excepting  his 
period  as  Cardinal,  and  the  very  new  ones  to 
Fontana  himself,  with  the  tools,  fountains,  and 
obelisk. 

The  inscriptions  are  chosen  carefully  and  placed 
just  where  they  belong. 

"A   monument  of  his  religious  munificence 
dedicated  to  our  very  Holy  Lord  Sixtus  V> 
Supreme  Pontiff." 
"  Concerning  the  transference  of  the  obelisk 
of  the  Vatican,  and  the  works  of  our  Lord 
Sixtus  V,  the  first  book." 
The  last  line  tells  that  Nic.  Sebenico  of  Dal- 
matia  engraved  the  plate  in  Rome  in  1589,  having 
obtained  the  copyright  from  the  Pope ;  so  the 
stated  age  of  Fontana,  forty-six  years,  stands  for 
1589.    We  also  know  at  once  that,  when  publish- 
ing this  book,  he  intended  to  continue  with  a 
second  volume  .  .  .  little  thinking  under  which 
circumstances  he  would  do  so :  in  exile,  many 
years  later,  almost  in  self-defence  ! 

The  title  is  extremely  simple  on  the  print. 
Here  it  is  only  a  repetition  of  the  first  page  of 


136 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  book,  where  almost  the  same  wording  fills  the 
whole  surface  of  the  folio,  imitating  an  old  in- 
scription with  royal  characters  of  the  Sixtine  era. 

Before  entering  into  the  material  of  this  book, 
I  should  like  to  say  something  more  about  its  real 
scope.  In  the  works  of  former  centuries  we  often 
have  to  seek  for  their  substantial  meaning.  The 
language  of  letters,  documents,  chronicles,  privi- 
leges, is  somewhat  pompous,  and  overcharged 
with  curls  and  twists,  covered  with  flowers — 
amongst  which  many  are  withered — and  profusely 
flavoured.  We  certainly  do  almost  the  same,  but 
not  quite  to  such  an  extent.  Those  of  us  who 
are  now  writing  what  will  be  documents  in  cen- 
turies to  come  will  not  offer  to  the  world  so  many 
puzzles. 

In  handling  old  books  it  is  well  to  investigate 
the  reasonable  existence  of  every  detail.  The  best 
method  to  begin  with  is  to  take  nothing  for 
granted ;  I  mean  by  that,  not  to  take  the  old  book 
as  a  ready  purchase,  but  to  discover  how  and  by 
which  means  it  became  such  a  book.  The  choice 
of  paper,  of  type,  the  composition  of  the  pages,  will 
then  strike  us  at  once.  Not  chance,  but  experience 
and  continuous  thought  have  guided  the  book  to 
its  aesthetic  form.  Already,  in  the  first  century 
of  the  invention  of  typography,  we  may  surmise 
that  the  relations  between  author  and  typographer- 
publisher  were  of  some  value  in  the  final  produc- 
tion of  the  volume.    A  few  instances  in  the 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  137 


XVIth  century  prove  the  truth  of  this  supposi- 
tion. It  has  been  told  that  Erasmus  personally 
watched  the  composing  of  one  of  his  works  in 
a  printing  office  in  Venice. 

In  the  Antwerp  Museum  we  find,  with  its 
corrections,  the  printed  proof  page  executed  by 
the  experts  employed  by  Plantin  for  that  purpose. 
To  adhere  strictly  to  the  time  of  Sixtus  V,  we 
have  a  testimony  in  the  correspondence  of  Giro- 
lamo  Catena.  In  one  of  his  letters  he  indicates 
to  his  printer  the  use  of  a  special  type  for  Latin 
quotations.  Another  example  is  in  Rocca's  book 
about  the  Vatican  Library  (published  1591).  At 
the  end  he  asks  forgiveness  for  mistakes,  as  it  was 
a  very  hot  season  when  his  work  was  printed  and 
the  printing  office  rather  distant  from  where  he 
lived. 

When  we  have  thought  over  the  circumstances 
accompanying  the  production  of  a  book  they  seem 
most  natural.  There  were  some  more  complicated 
peculiarities  which  are  now  out  of  use  or  dying 
out.  Old  books  frequently  open  with  quite  a 
collection  of  poetry  written  by  friends  or  pro- 
tectors of  the  author.  It  seems  impossible  that 
these  poetical  and  favourable  criticisms  could  be 
printed  in  the  very  first  edition  together  with  the 
book  to  which  they  appertain.  Clever  historians 
have  seen  that  the  authors,  in  those  cases,  had  to 
send  the  manuscript  around  to  their  friends.  They 
read  it,  penned  an  appropriate  poem,  and  returned 


138 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  future  book  and  their  metrical  statement  to- 
gether. After  the  manuscript  had  passed  around 
and  gained  a  conspicuous  crown  of  laurels,  the 
whole  was  sent  to  the  printer,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  this  scheme  did  not  only  aim  at  advertise- 
ment, but  acted  as  a  sort  of  balm  against  sharp 
opinions.  The  author  flattered  severe  critics  by- 
sending  them  his  manuscript,  suggesting  that  he 
would  not  dare  print  it  before  he  had  their  sanction 
with  the  unspoken  condition  that  he  also  would 
be  indulgent  when  his  turn  came  to  pass  judgment. 
.  .  .  This  custom  has  died  out.  At  least,  in  our 
days,  critics  do  not  write  poetical  sentences.  .  .  . 

The  habit  of  dedicating  books  was  in  former 
times  much  more  general  than  it  is  now.  Feel- 
ings of  gratitude,  love,  and  admiration  cer- 
tainly often  caused  the  hand  of  an  author  to 
tremble  with  emotion  at  a  memorable  moment. 
But  such  noble  sentiments  are  not  always  to  be 
considered  as  his  real  motives.  Here  the  curly 
style  complicates  the  situation ;  still,  it  does 
not  cover  everything,  as  we  know  from  counter- 
proofs  in  simple  figures.  For  instance,  the  author 
dedicates  his  book  to  the  Governor  of  his  own,  or 
even  of  a  foreign  city,  who  accepts  the  homage 
and  orders  the  city  clerk  to  note  how  many 
golden  ducats  he  has  paid  for  this  tribute  of 
veneration ! 

Publishers  of  engravings  did  the  same,  as  Padre 
Ehrle  has  discovered  and  related  in  his  book  about 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  139 


a  Roman  map  of  1577.  He  found  out  that  their 
copper-plates  were  kept  in  stock,  and  their  each 
proof,  by  means  of  a  simple  erasure,  was  dedicated 
to  a  different  nobleman.  They  followed  the 
politics  of  the  day,  and  were  ready  with  their 
article  as  soon  as  the  new  sovereign  stepped  into 
his  official  position,  though  they  had  already  dedi- 
cated the  same  MS.  or  print  to  his  predecessor. 

In  Sixtus  V's  book  of  accounts  1  found  on 
nearly  every  page  the  name  of  Fontana,  with  large 
sums  behind  it.  His  name  and  expenditures  were 
coupled  later — to  his  disadvantage.  The  cashier 
jotted  down  the  expenses  for  the  famous  safe  in 
Castel  Sant'  Angelo  and  the  cost  of  the  knight's 
new  chain ;  but  nothing  is  entered  concerning 
Fontana's  book,  or  a  present  in  return  for  it.  So 
that  if  this  is  not  an  omission,  or  an  aggravation  of 
Sixtus'  parsimony  in  the  later  years  of  his  life,  we 
would  be  inclined  to  accept  the  dedication  of  the 
book  by  Fontana  to  his  pontifical  master  as  per- 
fectly sincere  and  disinterested. 

At  the  same  time,  the  volume  grows  in  our 
esteem,  beyond  its  folio  size,  and  the  author,  with 
his  obelisk  in  his  hands,  rises  behind  his  desk  as  an 
upright  man  in  the  zenith  of  his  career,  who,  from 
his  natural  pulpit,  lectures  about  the  works  "  the 
fame  of  which  has  filled  the  world  "  to  "  those  who, 
on  account  of  being  far  (from  Rome),  cannot  ad- 
mire their  majesty."  The  glory  of  it  all  returns  to 
the  Pope,  as  is  stated  by  the  dedication  in  courtly 


140 


SIXTINE  ROME 


phrase,  "  As  the  waters  come  from  the  sea  and 
go  back  to  it." 

Every  allowance  being  made,  the  book  of 
Fontana  appears  to  us  as  a  genuine  treatise  about 
a  very  distinct  style  of  architecture  and  a  pre- 
ponderant feature  in  the  appearance  of  Rome  after 
the  Renaissance. 

He  no  doubt  offered  a  copy  to  Sixtus — if  the 
Pope  did  not  die  before  the  book  came  out,  of 
which  I  am  not  sure — and  presented  the  Cardinals 
with  others,  thus  facing  from  the  outset  a  tribunal 
of  intelligent  judges.  Among  the  Cardinals  there 
must  have  been  several  who  looked  upon  him  as  a 
parvenu.  They  had  to  handle  him  with  the  same 
delicacy  that  restrained  the  expression  of  their 
opinions  when  they  had  similar  thoughts  about 
his  papal  master.  The  activity  of  Fontana,  com- 
pressed in  the  short  lapse  of  five  years,  had 
attracted  general  attention,  and  each  prelate  must 
have  encountered  this  laborious  man  with  his  armies 
of  workmen,  pulling  down  buildings  and  at  the  same 
time  hastily  constructing  others  in  many  parts  of 
Rome.  He  certainly  often  met  with  resistance 
when  putting  his  hands  to  venerable  antiquities  in 
order  to  replace  them  by  modern  palaces  which, 
however,  soon  showed  age  through  the  dry  and 
severe  character  of  his  own  style.  The  Chapter  of 
St.  John  in  Lateran  cannot  have  approved  of  the 
destruction  of  the  old  mansions  of  the  Popes  round 
the  basilica.     He  must  have  bred  much  silent 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA  141 


enmity  in  the  hearts  of  those  who  loved  Rome  as 
it  was  before  Sixtus  V. 

At  all  times  the  clergy  is  naturally  inclined  to 
love  the  Middle  Ages  as  the  epoch  in  which  the 
Catholic  Church  existed  without  competition  and 
freely  impregnated  art  with  religion.  The  defini- 
tion of  Art  as  "  a  religion  or  a  luxury,"  although 
paradoxical  and  formulated  from  the  medievalist's 
standpoint,  is  valuable  as  distinguishing  between 
mediaeval  art  and  the  Renaissance.  Though  I  can- 
not adduce  any  contemporary  proof  of  it,  I  take 
it  for  granted  that,  even  as  late  in  the  XVIth 
century  as  Sixtus'  reign,  the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages 
was  still  regretted  by  the  most  cultured  clergy. 
Such  a  proof  might  be  a  lament  in  pamphlet  form 
by  a  learned  and  art-loving  priest.  Then  it  would 
at  the  same  time  be  a  warning  not  to  consider 
History  from  a  hasty  criterion,  and  also  to  reckon, 
with  the  important  element  in  society  called  Con- 
servatism. 

Fontana  was  a  man  of  enterprise,  and,  as  such, 
he  was  victorious  over  the  Conservatives,  who 
often  have  more  culture  and  less  activity.  We 
see  this  intellectual  and  artistic  struggle  between 
the  successful  bourgeoisie  and  the  indolent  aris- 
tocracy from  Fontana's  point  of  view  only.  The 
others  did  not  write  down  their  wounded  feelings 
and  offended  taste. 

However,  this  enterprising  man  of  the  XVIth 
century  lacked  the  variety  in  architectural  design 


142 


SIXTINE  ROME 


possessed  by  Bernini  his  successor  in  the  following 
century.  The  severity,  stiffness,  and  poverty  of 
imagination  in  Fontana's  style  may  partly  be 
ascribed  to  Sixtus  V  and  explained  as  the  sober- 
ness of  a  monk,  and  partly  to  the  very  strong 
Spanish  influence  brought  into  Italy  by  the  Courts 
in  the  second  half  of  the  Cinquecento  (compare 
Bronzino's  portrait  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici's  wife 
with  his  designs  for  tapestry,  lately  published  in 
the  Bollettino  d'Arte).  But  even  then  an  artist 
with  a  touch  of  divine  grace  might  have  come 
out  of  the  tournament  with  triumphant  charm 
and  striking  lines  of  composition. 

The  ways  to  success  are  manifold.  Fontana 
reached  his  goal  by  the  secondary  qualities  which 
imbued  the  artists  of  the  Renaissance :  steadfast- 
ness and  diplomacy.  Sixtus  V  kept  a  small  Court, 
Fontana  was  a  courtier  in  the  larger  Court  which 
was  Rome  beyond  the  walls  of  the  Vatican. 
The  Pope  required  a  man  of  his  calibre  to  com- 
plete his  numerous  public  works,  and  Fontana's 
diplomacy  safeguarded  him  against  contrary  in- 
fluences. He  could  have  written  one  of  the  many 
manuals  on  "how  to  hold  your  place  in  Court," 
of  which  Castiglione's  Cortigiano  is  the  classical 
type.  He  left  us  some  precious  written  memoirs 
of  his  knowledge  of  men's  hearts  in  his  narrative 
of  the  erection  of  the  obelisk — a  monument  to  his 
own  career.  The  story  is  told  with  perfect  can- 
dour in  simple  and  strong  language,  and  is  it- 


DOMENICO  FONT  AN  A  143 


self  the  best  chapter  in  the  biography  of  a  self- 
made  man. 

Fontana  appears  in  its  clear  daylight  as  a  much 
more  attractive  figure  than  we  should  have  sup- 
posed from  his  features  and  from  the  gloom  of 
many  of  his  architectural  masterpieces.  This  man 
of  reason  ought  to  have  lived  in  the  age  of  steel 
and  concrete,  and  enjoyed  the  preference  given  to 
intelligence  and  system  rather  than  to  the  in- 
genious inspiration  of  the  moment  .  .  .  such 
is  our  twentieth-century  conclusion  after  reading 
his  report. 

Haste  pervades  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V. 
No  matter  if  the  impulse  meets  with  such  an 
unwieldy  and  obstinate  impediment  as  an  obelisk, 
or  if  it  decrees  that  the  dome  of  Michelangelo 
must  be  spanned  over  the  crossing  of  the  naves  of 
St.  Peter's.  Money,  material,  engineers,  and  a 
legion  of  workmen  are  ready  to  bring  the  Pope's 
commands  into  solid  reality.  Not  only  haste,  but 
exuberant  force  leads  the  actions  of  Sixtus.  He 
attempts  the  most  difficult  tasks  at  the  same  time  ; 
reaches,  at  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign,  the 
limits  of  the  possible  gauged  after  the  technical 
means  of  his  times  by  the  placing  of  the  obelisk 
before  St.  Peter's.  To  the  church  he  will  give 
before  the  end  of  his  reign  its  most  essential 
ornament :  its  dome. 

Quickly  and  strenuously  the  Pontiff  started 
with  his  obelisk. 


144 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Four  months  after  the  day  of  his  election,  a 
Committee  of  Cardinals,  of  Prelates,  and  en- 
gineers was  called  together.  At  that  moment 
the  obelisk,  leaning  slightly  on  one  side,  surmounted 
by  a  sphere,  was  standing  deep  in  the  earth  where 
it  had  been  planted  in  the  former  circus,  near  the 
vestry  of  St.  Peter's.  The  proposition  must  have 
seemed  somewhat  fanciful  to  the  "Committee  of 
very  intelligent  men,"  as  Fontana  calls  them 
without  a  shadow  of  irony.  The  majority  of 
them  realised  that  it  implied  a  responsibility 
beyond  their  ken.  This  Fontana  knew  already. 
He  enumerates  "the  extraordinary  weight  and 
size  of  the  stone,"  "the  danger  of  breaking 
this  valuable  single  remnant  of  Roman  times 
left  upright,  the  experience  of  other  Popes  and 
other  engineers,  who  had  abandoned  the  task 
even  before  they  had  undertaken  it,  and  the  dis- 
couraging fact  that  no  record  was  left  describing 
ancient  methods  for  lifting  and  carrying  the  mono- 
lith." (I  do  not  know  where  Ranke  found  the 
information  that  Fontana  used  the  description  of 
the  erection  of  an  obelisk  by  Ammianus  Marcel- 
linus.  Fontana's  own  words  seem  to  exclude  his 
knowledge  of  any  reliable  description.) 

We  can  imagine  the  judges  meeting  in  the 
palace  of  Cardinal  Cesi:  four  Cardinals,  one  of 
them  the  future  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  Ferdi- 
nando  de'  Medici,  several  prelates,  some  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Roman  population,  Masters  of 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  145 


the  Streets,  Commissioners  of  the  "Fontana  di 
Trevi."  Those  were  the  technical  advisers.  The 
assembly  discussed  with  the  earnestness  habitual 
to  Committees,  whilst  the  impatient  Honorary 
President,  waiting  in  a  corridor  of  the  Vatican, 
stood  pondering  about  a  new  wing  for  the  Court 
of  San  Damaso  facing  the  stately  obelisk.  They 
must  have  felt  all  the  weight  of  the  stone  on 
their  weary  shoulders  ! 

The  course  of  their  actions  shows  that  Com- 
mittees have  been  Committees  at  least  since  the 
beginning  of  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  the  Fifth. 
They  naturally  did  what  the  Italians  picturesquely 
call  Hcarica  barile  (placing  barrels  on  the  shoulders 
of  others).  Fontana,  who  evidently  followed  the 
meetings  and  the  resolutions  passed,  recounts 
it  unconsciously.  As  they  were  unable  to  agree, 
they  decided  to  call  in  the  advice  of  all  the  literary 
men,  mathematicians,  architects,  and  engineers 
that  they  could  find.  The  moment  was  propitious. 
The  beginning  of  a  pontificate  always  brought 
many  people  of  real  talent,  and  others  of  more 
dubious  merit,  to  the  capital.  The  effect  sur- 
passed all  expectations.  Within  twenty-five  days 
a  crowd  of  five  hundred  candidates  had  collected. 
Fontana  gives  us  the  following  details :  "  On  the 
eighteenth  of  September,  about  five  hundred  men 
belonging  to  the  above-mentioned  professions,  ar- 
rived from  different  towns ;  some  came  from 
Milan,  others  from  Venice,  a  few  from  Florence, 

L 


146 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Lucca,  Como,  Sicily,  and  even  from  Rhodes  and 
Greece ;  amongst  them  being  some  monks.  Each 
of  them  brought  his  own  invention,  in  design, 
in  a  model,  or  merely  in  writing,  while  another 
described  his  in  a  speech.  ..." 

Fontana  presents  to  the  readers  of  his  book 
(written  several  years  after  the  successful  transfer 
of  the  obelisk)  a  cartoon  representing  the  most 
fantastical  propositions  from  the  five  hundred. 
Without  going  into  any  ironical  comment,  he 
leaves  his  readers  to  judge  with  their  own  eyes, 
reasoning  that  it  is  much  easier  to  invent  little 
models,  than  to  adapt  them  for  the  actual  erection 
of  an  obelisk.  His  own  model  is  carried  up  to  the 
sky  (on  the  cartoon),  in  a  kind  of  apotheosis,  by 
two  cherubs,  and  the  unfinished  St.  Peter's  is  seen 
in  the  higher  regions,  waiting  for  its  dome. 
Beneath,  between  the  remaining  old  structure  and 
the  doomed  vestry  of  the  basilica — the  mediaeval 
St.  Mary  of  Fevers — his  competitors  are  shown, 
boastfully  playing  with  their  tiny  machines,  archi- 
tects of  castles  in  Spain !  Only  one  man  in  the 
group  besides  Fontana  realises  the  difficulty  as  he 
gazes  upwards  at  the  imposing  height  of  the 
obelisk  itself ! 

In  after  years,  when  Fontana's  name  was 
known  as  that  of  the  man  who  transferred  the 
obelisk,  he  had  no  reason  to  entertain  contempt 
for  his  unsuccessful  competitors.  If  he  had  written 
his  book  when  controversy  was  at  its  height,  his 


Fontana's  competitors. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  147 


account  would  have  been  more  impassioned.  Time, 
as  it  went  on,  soothed  the  personal  irritation  which 
this  calm,  intelligent  man  must  have  suffered,  when 
it  was  affirmed  by  pedantic,  modest,  clear-headed,  or 
wildly  fantastic  men  amongst  the  five  hundred  that 
the  obelisk  could  never  be  lowered  into  a  horizontal 
position  !  The  most  daring  only  ventured  to  pro- 
pose that  it  be  carried  in  an  inclined  position, 
a  mezz'aria. 

It  was  probably  towards  the  end  of  the  discus- 
sion, in  the  midst  of  a  competitive  demonstration 
as  to  how  the  obelisk  should  be  moved  by  means 
of  vices,  levers,  a  dented  wheel,  etc.,  that  Fontana 
stepped  quietly  forward  and  astonished  the  as- 
sembly with  a  neat  little  wooden  model  of  a  scaffold- 
ing provided  with  pulleys  and  cords.  A  miniature 
obelisk,  made  of  lead,  obediently  answering  the 
architect's  intentions,  was  safely  lowered  and  laid 
on  the  ground,  ready  to  be  carried  horizontally  in 
its  full  length  to  any  given  place.  The  inventor 
explained  each  movement,  giving  his  reasons  and 
arguing  the  subject  in  every  detail. 

The  assembly  met  again,  and,  after  protracted 
discussions,  they  declared  that  Fontana's  invention 
was  by  far  the  most  practical,  and  should  be 
accepted.  This  part  of  the  Committee's  task  was 
fulfilled  fairly,  and,  in  theory,  the  obelisk  was 
already  on  its  new  site. 

But,  at  this  moment,  the  members  of  the 
assembly  became  oppressed  by  a  sense  of  respon- 


148 


SIXTINE  ROME 


sibility.  Was  this  clever  inventor,  once  a  mason- 
boy,  with  his  pretty  machine  and  free  speech, 
the  person  to  whom  they  should  entrust  such 
a  delicate  charge  ?  One  word  more  and  this 
enterprising  man  would  be  raising  skywards  the 
full-size  replica  of  his  model,  and  beginning  to  lift 
the  real  obelisk !  Their  eyes  wandered  towards 
the  small  leaden  toy.  They  saw  in  their  imagina- 
tion the  real  object,  a  million  times  heavier,  hang- 
ing a  mezz'aria  (in  mid-air),  its  full  weight 
pulling  on  the  ropes.  A  terrible  crash,  the  cas- 
tello  (scaffolding)  falling  to  the  ground,  the  work- 
men flying  in  fright.  A  sound  of  thunder  .  .  .  the 
obelisk  in  pieces !  .  .  .  A  messenger  hastening  to 
the  Vatican,  to  that  impatient  Pontiff,  Sixtus  V  .  .  . 
Here  their  overwrought  fancy  stopped.  They 
looked  at  Fontana  and  wondered  to  see  his  head 
still  upon  his  shoulders ;  how  could  he  keep  calm 
in  such  a  disaster?  That  man?  Never!  An 
excuse,  ready  found  .  .  .  too  young.  Only  forty - 
two. 

The  blow  must  have  seemed  hard  to  Fontana. 
He  says  that  he  was  glad  that  an  old  colleague — 
sixty-five  years  of  age — Bartolommeo  Ammanati, 
with  the  help  of  Giacomo  della  Porta,  should  be 
entrusted  with  all  the  responsibility  of  executing 
his  own  plan.  We  refuse  to  accept  his  statement, 
probably  fabricated  to  cover  his  disappointment. 
For  he  must  have  felt  the  decision  of  the  Com- 
mittee to  be  a  serious  check  in  his  promising  career. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  149 


He  only  waited  for  an  opportunity  to  show  that 
he  understood  the  policy  of  the  frightened  digni- 
taries and  technical  men,  trying  to  subdivide  the 
responsibility.  Strong  in  his  convictions,  he  must 
have  resented  their  lack  of  faith  in  his  skill. 

The  strategies  of  the  Committee  saved  the 
position  in  Fontana's  favour,  for  the  tactics  of 
tardiness  continued  after  the  defeat.  The  new- 
comers accepted  the  invention  with  much  diffi- 
dence.   And  Sixtus  nearly  had  to  wait! 

Fontana,  beaten  by  delay,  counted  on  the 
impatience  of  his  supreme  master.  He  awaited 
the  explosion,  keeping  away  from  the  Pope  for 
seven  days.  Then  he  called,  with  some  excuse,  at 
the  palace  of  Monte  Cavallo.  Soon  the  Pope  him- 
self brought  the  conversation  to  the  desired  point. 
Fontana  said  that  "he  thought  that  everything 
would  go  all  right.  He  was  only  afraid  that,  in 
the  execution  of  his  plans  by  others,  something 
might  happen,  through  their  fault,  and  that  he 
would  be  charged  with  their  failure.  It  would  be 
explained  as  a  fault  of  his  model.  That  made 
him  thoughtful.  It  did  not  seem  just  to  him. 
Nobody  else  could  do  his  work  so  well  as  he 
himself.  ..." 

At  once  Fontana  reached  his  heart's  desire.  He 
had  calculated  rightly.  In  all  his  modesty  he 
stood  before  a  master  whose  bitter  days  he  had 
shared,  who,  however  stern,  held  high  his  interpre- 
tation of  justice.     Sixtus  V,  impulsive  in  his 


150 


SIXT1NE  ROME 


decisions,  tenacious  in  their  execution,  saw  his  faith- 
ful Fontana  disappointed,  crushed,  wronged,  by 
the  Committee's  lack  of  energy ;  neither  had  he 
had  any  report  of  a  beginning  made  by  the  others ; 
an  injustice  was  done,  a  public  work  waiting,  two 
sins  committed  under  his  eyes.  With  a  charac- 
teristic gesture,  he  gave  up  all  his  consideration  for 
the  Committee  and  for  the  age  of  Bartolommeo 
Ammanati.  Already  Ammanati,  though  sent  by 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  had  been  ordered 
away  with  harsh  words  by  Sixtus,  when  he  had 
asked  for  a  whole  year  for  the  work.  In  an  in- 
credibly short  time  Fontana  was  walking  towards 
St.  Peter's  Square,  in  full  charge  of  the  work, 
accompanied  by  fifty  men  ready  to  open  the 
ground  for  the  obelisk's  foundation.  On  the 
spot  itself  he  only  found  one  pole,  planted  by 
Ammanati  and  Giacomo  della  Porta.  Fontana 
mentions  this  detail,  again  without  irony. 

This  incident  took  place  on  the  26th  of  Septem- 
ber, and  the  date  appears  in  a  very  significant 
way  in  the  accounts  of  Sixtus  V,  which  I  con- 
sulted in  the  Vatican  Archives.  On  the  same  day 
Giacomo  della  Porta  was  paid  for  his  work  of  un- 
covering the  obelisk — "by  order  of  the  Pope  on 
the  said  day."  Sixtus  V  settled  the  whole  question 
on  the  25th  of  September,  again  on  a  Wednesday. 

We  know  from  documents  published  by  Berto- 
lotti  that,  on  the  29th  of  September,  Sixtus  V 
signed  a  preliminary  cheque  of  3000  scudi  for  the 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  151 


architect  Fontana  "  to  buy  wood,  cables,  and 
other  things  necessary  "  for  the  transfer  of  the 
monument.  Fontana's  estimate  was  16,000  scudi 
for  the  whole  work.  His  next  competitor  was 
a  colleague,  who  offered  to  do  it  for  13,500  scudi. 
This  is  not  mentioned  in  Fontana's  book,  but  in 
Bertolotti's. 

Soon  afterwards  Fontana  received  a  papal "  privi- 
lege," calculated  to  be  of  the  greatest  assistance  to 
him  and  to  facilitate  his  task  in  every  way. 
Proud  of  the  privilege,  valid  in  the  Eccle- 
siastical States,  he  prints  a  copy  of  it  in  his  book. 
It  embraced  indeed  all  the  resources  of  the  whole 
territory  dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  With  the 
authority  of  his  privilege  he  could  force  every 
workman  of  the  highest  or  lowest  class  to  come  to 
his  aid  with  craft  and  tools,  but  paying  him  his  due 
wages.  He  had  the  right  to  claim  all  the  wood 
useful  for  his  purpose,  paying  the  price  established 
by  two  arbiters ;  to  cut  down  all  the  timber  he 
wanted  from  the  possessions  of  the  cathedral  and 
Chapter  of  St.  Peter's,  of  S.  Spirito  in  Sassia,  and 
of  the  Apostolic  Chamber,  and  freely  to  use  their 
grounds  to  feed  and  support  the  cattle  required 
for  the  work.  He  could  take  all  the  food  for 
his  workmen  in  Rome ;  he  could  bring  anything 
into  the  city  without  paying  taxes,  call  to  his 
service  all  persons  belonging  to  the  fabbrica  of 
St.  Peter's,  clear  the  space  round  the  obelisk,  and 
pull  down  any  house  he  wanted  out  of  his  way,  on 


152 


SIXTINE  ROME 


condition  that  he  first  stated  the  amount  to  be 
paid. 

In  this  singular  document  the  absence  of  pres- 
sure on  the  labour  market  and  the  accuracy  of  the 
financial  side  of  the  question  were  certainly  fixed 
with  the  approval  of  Domenico  Fontana  himself. 
It  also  gives  us  an  insight  into  the  industrial 
resources  of  Italy  in  those  days. 

Rome  had  to  make  the  heavy  cables  of  hemp 
brought  from  Foligno  by  a  man  sent  there  by 
order  of  Fontana.  From  Ronciglione  and  Subiaco 
he  ordered  the  bars  and  all  the  minor  iron  imple- 
ments. A  large  gang  of  workmen  went  to  the 
woods  of  Campomorto,  near  Nettuno,  to  cut  the 
oak,  which  was  brought  to  Rome  on  very  large  two- 
wheeled  carts,  each  drawn  by  seven  pairs  of  oxen. 

If  a  certain  Guido  Baldo  Foglietta  saw  this 
procession  on  the  pavement  of  Rome,  he  must 
have  been  alarmed.  This  man  made — during  the 
reign  of  Sixtus  V — a  special  study  of  the  action 
of  wheels  on  pavement.  In  the  Roman  Historical 
Society's  Review  Count  Balzani,  who  has  written 
in  English  the  latest  biography  of  Sixtus  V,  pub- 
lished an  interesting  little  treatise  on  the  subject. 
It  proves  how  carefully  Italians  have  observed 
mechanical  questions,  and,  as  such,  deserves  a 
moment's  consideration  between  Fontana's  greater 
wonders. 

Foglietta  says  that  the  worst  damage  to  a  pave- 
ment is  caused  by  a  wheel  with  a  narrow  band 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA  153 


composed  of  different  pieces  of  iron  attached  by- 
protruding  nails.  These  wheels  tear  it,  cut  it  up,  and 
carry  it  away.  Therefore  he  proposes  the  general 
use  of  wheels  with  opposite  qualities,  considering 
that  the  streets  of  Rome  are  "all  on  ruins  and 
often  opened  up  to  make  sewers  and  aqueducts" 
(this  last  observation  suits  the  Sixtine  times  well !). 
The  cleanliness  of  the  streets  is  also  amongst  his 
pious  wishes  :  therefore,  nobody  should  be  allowed 
to  throw  refuse  into  public  highways.  Special 
carts,  which  he  plans  in  detail,  should  go  round 
to  gather  it  up. 

We  know  something  more  about  the  city's 
cleanliness  under  Sixtus  V.  A  Roman  specialist, 
called  Cerasoli,  has  written  an  article  on  the 
streets  of  Rome  in  general  at  that  period.  The 
nettezza  was  entrusted  to  private  individuals. 
Each  of  them  received  twelve  cents  every  week 
from  every  shopkeeper  who  had  a  frontage. 
He  quotes  another  payment  of  the  year  1483 : 
one  florin  a  month  to  the  sweeper  who  had  to 
clean  the  street  from  Castel  Sant'  Angelo  to 
the  Vatican  Palace.  The  new  pavement  of  the 
city  under  Sixtus  V  was  made  between  January 
and  July,  1587.  It  cost  5000  scudi.  The  streets 
were  then  paved  with  stone,  in  spite  of  the  belief 
of  the  Romans  that  this  kind  of  pavement  was 
unhealthy.  In  1588  several  roads  were  paved 
with  bricks,  121  altogether,  divided  over  different 
Rioni  (Wards  of  Rome). 


154 


SIXTINE  ROME 


One  of  the  reports,  published  for  the  first  time 
in  the  article,  gives  a  list  of  the  names  of  streets, 
mentioning  also  some  palaces  of  the  time,  and  is 
of  importance  for  the  topography  of  Rome. 

The  territory  of  Terracina  provided  a  great 
quantity  of  wooden  boards  for  covering  the 
obelisk  and  for  its  bed.  The  central  axes  for  the 
windlasses  were  cut  in  a  place  belonging  to  the 
Camera  Apostolica.  Everywhere  the  work  was 
started  at  once,  almost  on  the  same  day. 

Fontana,  from  a  mere  inventor,  regarded  with 
suspicion  by  the  cautious  Committee,  had  become, 
by  a  papal  motu-proprio,  the  man  of  the  moment. 

His  activity  was  given  a  heavy  task.  How 
interesting  it  would  have  been  if  his  correspondence 
had  been  saved  !  The  unhappy  later  period  of  his 
career  must  be  made  responsible  for  the  loss  of  his 
papers. 

Men  in  his  position  in  Italy  kept  their  books 
and  correspondence  very  well,  and  an  important 
part  of  Fontana's  book-keeping  is  preserved.  Debt 
and  credit,  letters  received  and  sent,  diaries,  copies 
of  reports,  were  part  of  their  daily  occupation. 
Their  punctuality  and  regularity  make  the  study  of 
Italian  history  specially  interesting  to  us.  In  the 
case  of  Fontana,  we  may  suppose  that  he  sat  in  his 
office  many  late  nights  in  order  to  keep  in  touch 
with  his  staff  of  collaborators  and  providers. 

He  himself  tells  us  about  his  day's  work. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  155 


In  the  first  place,  he  studied  his  obelisk  over  and 
over  again.  It  was  partly  buried  under  ground, 
by  the  effect  of  time,  in  a  distant,  muddy  place, 
so  little  frequented  by  people  that  strangers  who 
came  to  Rome  out  of  devotion  or  curiosity,  if  they 
were  not  brought  there  by  somebody  who  knew 
the  way,  would  not  find  the  obelisk,  and  would 
even  depart  without  seeing  it. 

Fontana  was  to  change  that  state  of  things. 
The  half-lost  obelisk  would  be  for  all  time  on  the 
most  frequented  square  in  Rome.  Only  the  delay  of 
centuries  was  still  between  those  two  extremes, 
and  his  intelligence  and  skill  had  to  indicate  an 
absolutely  safe  way  of  bringing  the  monolith  from 
the  Circus  to  the  square. 

Method  won  the  game,  from  the  start  to  the 
successful  finish. 

First  of  all  he  made  himself  a  clear  idea  of  the 
material  weight  of  the  task.  Using  forty  wind- 
lasses, and  moving  them  by  the  power  of  men  and 
horses  in  strict  discipline,  he  counted  upon  an 
abundant  overweight.  He  reasoned  out  every 
possible  danger  and  difficulty,  and  prepared  against 
each  of  them  sufficiently.  Still  his  colleagues 
doubted  whether  he  would  succeed  in  harmonising 
the  forces.  Fontana,  however,  trusted  himself 
fully,  on  account  of  his  experience  in  that  kind  of 
work  and  of  the  order  he  would  keep  in  its  execu- 
tion. The  figure  of  Concordia  on  one  of  the 
illustrations  of  his  book  expresses  this  principle. 


156 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Around  and  above  the  obelisk,  the  castello  was 
built,  a  solid  temporary  tower  made  of  heavy 
wood,  cables,  and  iron,  capable  of  carrying,  if 
necessary,  the  entire  weight  of  the  block. 

The  castello  was  constructed  of  such  strength 
that  it  could  have  carried  a  whole  house,  as  the 
inventor  proudly  affirms,  as  easily  as  if  it  had  been 
made  of  solid  stone  or  a  mass  of  compact  brick. 
Five  windlasses  should  lift  the  obelisk  under  the 
basis.  Three  of  those  had  to  pass  inside  the  vestry 
of  St.  Peter's.  As  the  foot  of  the  obelisk  also  had 
to  slide  into  this  building,  Fontana  made  an  open- 
ing in  the  side  wall,  and  the  grave  of  Alexander  VI 
was  disturbed  for  this  purpose.  The  space  was 
small,  nevertheless,  and  it  required  much  care  to 
place  the  forty  windlasses,  as  shown  in  the  print 
with  the  Concordia.  Fontana  took  measures  to 
avoid  an  extreme  strain  on  the  castello,  by 
instructing  a  gang  of  workmen  to  place  wedges 
under  the  base  of  the  obelisk  as  soon  as  it  was 
lifted  up  and  to  continue  doing  so  gradually. 

From  the  roof  of  the  vestry,  a  bridge  went  to 
the  summit  of  the  castello  for  the  convenience 
of  the  workmen.  There,  on  the  top,  every  pulley 
was  numbered,  to  render  it  easy  for  the  overseers 
to  indicate  where  a  cable  was  drawn  too  tight.  A 
stroke  on  a  bell,  also  placed  there,  would  mean 
halt! 

The  start  was  to  be  signalled  by  a  trumpeter 
stationed  on  an  elevation  of  the  ground  below. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  157 


Each  windlass  was  tested  until  men  and  horses 
worked  in  the  desired  harmony  or  Concordia. 

The  obelisk  itself  was  covered  with  a  coating  of 
mats  and  thick  boards  and  clasped  around  with 
iron  bars  and  cables,  to  ensure  its  safety  and  the 
integrity  of  its  smooth  surface.  Some  days  before 
its  elevation  the  sphere  on  the  top  was  taken  off. 
Fontana  convinced  himself  that  the  popular  belief 
that  this  sphere  contained  the  ashes  of  Caesar  was 
a  mere  fable,  as  it  was  cast  in  one  piece,  and, 
originally,  no  hole  allowed  for  the  introduction  of 
any  other  material.  The  surface  presents  several 
apertures — (the  sphere  is  now  in  the  Capitoline 
Museum) — but  those  were  made  by  bullets  during 
the  siege  of  Rome  (1527).  (At  least,  that  is  how 
Fontana  explains  their  presence.) 

Some  dust  had  been  carried  into  the  openings 
by  the  wind.  Fontana  kept  note  of  all  these 
details ;  no  modern  archaeologist  could  surpass  him 
on  that  point ! 

As  the  great  day  came  nearer,  the  last  prepara- 
tions were  made.  The  architect-engineer  still  had 
to  count  with  one  disturbing  factor — the  curious 
and  noisy  public,  which  would  gather  for  the  occa- 
sion. Cries  of  joy  or  anger  would  disturb  the 
Concordia,  and  incalculable  disaster  would  happen, 
in  case  of  an  accident,  to  the  crowds  rushing 
towards  the  "  castello."  In  order  to  eliminate 
the  possibility  of  such  a  catastrophe,  Fontana  only 


158 


SIXTINE  ROME 


had  to  speak  and  a  6 6  bando  "  went  out,  as  severe 
an  edict  as  ever  restrained  an  excitable  throng. 
On  the  all-important  day  of  erection  the  streets 
leading  to  the  square  were  to  be  closed  and  the 
space  surrounded  with  fences.  Death  sentences 
were  to  be  meted  out  to  any  who  dared  to  over- 
step those  limits,  and  heavy  punishments  would 
fall  on  those  who,  by  any  noise,  would  hinder  the 
workmen  or  the  command  of  Fontana.  The 
police  was  admitted  into  the  enclosure  to  give 
quick  execution  to  the  "  bando."  This  might 
mean  much,  but  it  is  hardly  to  be  credited  that 
the  gallows  were  erected  inside  the  enclosure,  as 
the  legend  afterwards  related. 

"Very  great  silence  was  kept,"  says  Fontana, 
"  for  [fear  of]  the  punishments  of  the  Bando 
and  because  of  the  novelty  of  the  work."  This 
last  observation  on  what  we  call  ' 6  the  psychology 
of  crowds "  is  fine ;  extreme  astonishment  can 
cause  silence. 

On  the  30th  April,  1586,  two  hours  before  sun- 
rise, again  a  Wednesday,  mass  was  heard  by  all 
those  who  were  to  take  part  in  the  great  event 
fixed  for  that  day.  Then  all  entered  the  enclo- 
sure, where,  besides  the  hands  necessary  to  move 
the  engine,  Fontana  held  a  great  number  of 
labourers  in  readiness.  In  one  corner  twenty  men 
stood  with  twenty  fresh  horses,  to  change  if  neces- 
sary, while  eight  or  ten  inspectors  walked  around 
the  whole  field  of  operations  in  order  to  avoid 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  159 


disorder.  A  company  of  twenty  men  stood  at  the 
gate  of  the  store-room  housing  duplicate  pieces  of 
all  the  minor  instruments,  cords,  pulleys,  etc. 
Each  windlass  was  worked  by  two  capomacstri 
(head-masters).  Under  the  scaffolding  stood  twelve 
carpenters  to  place  the  wedges.  They  wore  iron 
helmets  to  protect  their  heads  in  case  some 
piece  should  fall.  On  the  scaffolding  he  placed 
thirty  men  ;  forty  at  the  three  levers  on  one  side  ; 
and,  at  the  two  levers  on  the  other,  eighteen  men 
with  a  small  windlass. 

In  the  meantime,  a  splendid  spring  day  had 
dawned  and  an  imposing  public  gathered.  Amongst 
the  honoured  guests  were  the  family  of  Montalto, 
the  Duchess  of  Bracciano  (formerly  Vittoria 
Accorambona),  the  Duchess  of  Paliano,  the 
Ambassadors,  and  the  aristocracy  of  Rome,  with 
a  conspicuous  number  of  ' '  forestieri  "  from  all 
parts  of  Italy.  The  windows  and  roofs  of  St. 
Peter's  and  other  churches  in  the  neighbourhood 
were  literally  crowded.  In  the  streets  there  was 
such  an  extraordinary  mass  that  the  Swiss  Guard 
and  light  cavalry  had  to  guard  the  fences  in  order 
to  avert  disturbance. 

"  When  everything  was  prepared  and  ready  in 
this  way,"  says  Fontana,  "  I  ordered  everybody 
to  execute  the  given  orders  when  the  sound  of  the 
trumpet  should  be  heard.  1  asked  all  the  work- 
men and  all  the  people  around,  seeing  that  this 
work  was  done  for  the  glory  of  God,  that  they 


160 


SIXTINE  ROME 


should  kindly  kneel  with  me  and  say  a  short 
prayer,  in  order  that  His  Divine  Majesty  should 
favour  our  enterprise,  our  own  strength  being  too 
feeble  to  reach  such  great  results  without  His 
special  help.  So  after  a  Pater  Noster  and  an  Ave 
Maria,  sung  by  all,  I  gave  the  signal  to  the  trum- 
peter. When  the  sound  burst  forth,  the  aforesaid 
five  levers  and  forty  windlasses,  manned  by  nine 
hundred  and  seven  men  and  seventy-five  horses, 
began  their  task.  It  seemed  as  if  the  earth 
trembled  at  this  first  movement.  The  scaffolding 
groaned  loudly  as  all  the  woodwork  shrunk  to- 
gether under  the  weight.  The  obelisk,  which  (as 
we  knew  when  we  used  the  lead)  hung  over 
two  feet  towards  the  choir  of  St.  Peter's,  where 
mass  is  now  recited,  raised  itself  straight.  Not- 
withstanding the  great  noise,  no  harm  had  come 
to  the  scaffolding.  Everybody  breathed.  A 
sound  from  the  bell  arrested  the  movement.  ..." 

It  was  only  a  slight  repair  which  had  to  be 
made  to  the  iron  bands  around  the  obelisk,  which 
in  general  offered  much  less  resistance  than  the 
cables.  In  twelve  movements  the  obelisk  was 
raised  by  a  few  inches.  The  old  blocks  were  taken 
away,  the  wedges  secured,  and  the  obelisk,  with 
its  frame,  left  in  that  position  after  a  day's  work. 
A  couple  of  mortars  gave  the  sign  to  the  Castel 
Sant'  Angelo,  where  all  the  artillery  was  fired  in 
sign  of  rejoicing.  The  workmen  had  their  dinner 
during  the  day,  as  an  old  print  shows  us.    The  old 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  161 


blocks  were  four  in  number ;  two  were  loose  and 
two  pivoted  about  six  inches  inside  the  obelisk. 
One  of  the  loose  ones  was  brought  at  once  to  the 
Pope. 

These  blocks  gave  the  successful  remover  of  the 
obelisk  a  great  deal  to  do  and  a  great  deal  to 
think  about.  In  the  course  of  his  researches  he 
had  in  vain  sought  the  means  whereby  the  ancients 
had  erected  the  obelisk.  In  Fontana's  day  the 
classical  times  still  were  the  principal  source  of 
knowledge,  especially  for  matters  of  an  architec- 
tural character.  He  probably  had  fewer  technical 
means  at  his  disposal  than  they  possessed.  Any 
hint  would  have  been  precious,  written  accounts 
were  lacking,  and  though  Fontana's  own  part  was 
done,  he  still  continued  to  seek  for  any  informa- 
tion that  could  be  obtained  from  facts.  The  four 
blocks  suggested  a  few  ideas,  but  it  took  four 
days  to  pull  them  out  of  the  stone,  which  had 
to  be  cut  all  round  them.  The  result  of  his 
research  must  have  satisfied  him,  for  he  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  he  had  done  much  better  than 
the  old  Romans.  To  surpass  antiquity  was  a 
dream  of  the  Renaissance.  We  will  leave  Do- 
menico's  illusion  undiscussed ! 

He  deduces  a  few  facts  about  the  Roman 
history  of  the  obelisk  from  the  state  in  which  he 
found  it.  He  supposes  that  it  must  have  been 
lying  on  one  side  for  a  long  time  before  being  put 
into  its  place.    The  base  was  rough,  as  well  as  three 

M 


162  SIXTINE  ROME 


sides.  The  smooth  side  may  have  been  lying  pro- 
tected against  the  earth,  whilst  all  the  others  were 
exposed  to  the  wind.  Besides,  he  agrees  with 
Plinius  that  the  obelisk  had  been  broken.  Fontana 
believed  that  the  upper  part  was  shortened  to 
disguise  its  rupture.  How  much  may  be  historical 
truth  and  how  much  excessive  imagination  we 
cannot  pretend  to  judge.  To  us  the  obelisk 
represents  three  centuries  more  of  mystery,  and 
we  must  accept  such  monuments  without  question. 

A  week  later,  again  on  a  Wednesday,  the  obelisk 
was  lowered  to  its  6 6  bed."  The  rolling  movement 
of  the  '  6  bed  "  under  the  base  had  to  be  counter- 
acted by  a  special  windlass  as  soon  as  the  point 
came  over  half  the  downward  distance.  This  is 
not  represented  on  the  print.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the  designer  or 
engraver  took  some  poetical  licence  when  he  drew 
a  man  standing  on  the  point,  while  the  obelisk 
described  a  peculiar  and  perilous  line  through 
space. 

Even  in  this  work  no  accident  occurred.  The 
scaffolding  had  done  the  first  part  of  its  duty  in 
a  very  satisfactory  way,  and  had  induced  a  general 
certainty  that  it  would  also  stand  the  resurrection 
of  the  slain  colossus  of  pagan  origin,  who  must 
have  felt  uncomfortable  in  the  vestry  of  St. 
Peter's,  where  the  operation  had  deposited  a  part 
of  its  base.  The  hero  of  the  day,  Domenico 
Fontana,  received  a   public   ovation,  and  was 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  163 


brought  home  with  drums  and  trumpets  like  a 
victor  in  less  peaceful  struggles. 

The  next  work  was  to  take  down  the  scaffolding 
and  to  send  its  different  sections  to  St.  Peter's 
Square  to  be  rebuilt.  The  obelisk  had  first  been 
moved  out  of  the  way  for  fear  that  pieces  of  wood 
might  fall  down  and  damage  it.  As  soon  as  the 
place  was  cleared,  Fontana  commenced  his  search 
for  the  root  of  the  obelisk,  composed  of  several 
blocks,  all  used  in  the  reconstruction  in  the  same 
order  as  he  had  found  them.  He  says  that  he  had 
never  seen  blocks  of  such  large  dimensions  in  Rome. 
Part  of  the  basement  was  joined  together  with 
iron  clamps  covered  with  lead.  They  had  been 
exposed  for  centuries  to  the  action  of  the  subter- 
ranean waters,  but  the  leaden  cover  had  protected 
them  perfectly  against  corroding  influences.  Under 
the  basement  Fontana  found  a  floor  of  travertine, 
and  under  this  a  foundation  of  stones,  which  he 
did  not  extract,  as  they  were  very  deep  and  sur- 
rounded by  water. 

On  St.  Peter's  Square  the  base  was  placed  on 
a  deep  foundation.  Between  its  different  parts 
medals  were  placed  representing  Pius  the  Vth, 
by  order  of  his  constant  admirer,  Sixtus.  The 
four  ancient  blocks  returned  to  their  former 
place.  Then  the  whole  base  was  covered  with 
earth,  so  as  to  form  a  little  mountain,  on  which 
the  "castello"  arose  again.  The  top  of  the 
mountain  was  connected  by  a  dyke  with  the  place 


164 


SIXT1NE  ROME 


where  the  obelisk  originally  stood,  and  so  every- 
thing was  prepared  for  the  great  day  of  its 
erection. 

On  the  10th  of  September,  1586 — again  a 
Wednesday,  just  to  aid  fate  ! — the  whole  day  was 
spent  in  executing  a  series  of  movements  exactly 
the  reverse  of  the  operation  of  lifting  and  lower- 
ing the  obelisk.  Again  an  enormous  audience 
was  present,  many  remaining  without  lunch  to 
watch  the  grandiose  spectacle.  On  this  day 
may  have  happened  the  famous  story  of  the 
seaman,  who — against  severe  orders  of  silence 
— is  said  to  have  cried  :  "  Acqua  alle  corde  !  "  The 
story  runs  that  the  obelisk  was  in  danger,  the 
cables  being  about  to  break.  The  seaman  could 
not  restrain  himself  from  shouting  out  his  very 
practical  advice,  and  "  Water  on  the  cables  "  proved 
the  salvation  of  the  monolith.  The  family  of  this 
man  who  thus  saved  the  obelisk,  as  well  as  his 
own  neck — called  Bresca — are  supposed  to  have 
obtained  the  right  to  send  the  palms  for  Palm- 
Sunday  to  St.  Peter's  from  San  Remo. 

The  elements  of  the  story  are  very  natural :  the 
threatened  punishment,  the  loyal  seaman  ac- 
quainted through  his  calling  with  the  dangers  of 
cables ;  and  the  clemency  of  the  Pope,  when  his 
precious  obelisk  was  saved.  Still  there  are  many 
reasons  to  doubt  the  authenticity  of  the  tale.  It 
should  rightly  be  placed  under  the  broad  heading : 
Roman  Folklore  ;  we  also  learn  from  it  inciden- 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  165 


tally,  that  already  at  that  time,  Rome  was  supplied 
with  more  or  less  exotic  plants  from  the  luxuriant 
Riviera.  The  fact  that  Fontana  has  not  men- 
tioned the  incident  does  not  disprove  its  truth,  for 
it  would  not  have  looked  well  in  his  somewhat 
self-satisfied  account.  But  this  reason  does  not 
explain  the  silence  of  contemporary  reporters.  I 
have  not  found  it  mentioned  in  the  numerous 
contemporary  accounts  of  the  erection ;  even  the 
Avvisi  say  nothing  of  the  incident.  It  is  difficult 
to  account  for  this  general  silence,  for  the  keen 
journalists  of  the  time  would  never  have  allowed 
such  an  exciting  item  to  be  passed  over.  Special 
researches  may  bring  more  light  on  the  story  and 
discover  the  time  in  which  it  had  its  origin.  I 
suppose  that  it  will  be  found  to  date  from  a 
period  after  the  death  of  Fontana  and  of  all  the 
eye-witnesses  of  his  feat,  were  they  landsmen  or 
loitering  sailors. 

The  literature  on  the  obelisk's  erection  is  inter- 
national enough.  The  book  in  which  Petrus 
Galesinus  collected  elucubrations  for  this  occasion 
called  Obeliscus  Vaticanus,  printed  in  Rome 
in  1588,  contains,  for  instance,  a  letter  written 
to  Spain  about  the  triumph  of  Fontana,  and 
poems  by  Polish,  German,  English,  Belgian, 
and  French  admirers,  mostly  students  in  their  re- 
spective national  colleges  in  Rome  in  the  year  1584 
— they  all  bring  in  the  Nile,  Cleopatra,  crocodiles, 
and  other  Egyptian  symbols  belonging  to  the 


166 


SIXTINE  ROME 


former  surroundings  of  that  other  stranger.  .  .  . 
One  poem  is  even  printed  in  the  form  of  an  obelisk. 
Last  but  not  least,  we  find  verses  from  Tasso,  who 
has  also  sung  another  work  of  Sixtus  in  his 
"Stanze"  on  the  Acqua  Felice. 

Sixtus  V  was  not  present  at  this  inspiring  cere- 
mony. He  expected  that  everybody  would  do  his 
duty ;  such  a  command  was  sufficient  to  bring  the 
obelisk  to  its  place  I  This  fact,  hatched  in  the 
alembic  of  folklore,  has  turned  into  a  tale  of 
striking  colours.  Popular  fancy  was  not  satis- 
fied with  that  calculated  indifference.  Already 
in  the  first  months  of  the  pontificate,  when  public 
opinion  about  every  new  Pope  becomes  formed, 
Sixtus  had  shown  enough  of  his  unbending  severity 
for  each  one  of  his  actions  to  be  judged  after  a 
determined  scheme.  The  people  naturally  in- 
vented the  story  that  Fontana  was  now  indeed 
risking  his  head,  as  the  members  of  the  Committee 
had  at  first  feared.  It  intensified  the  interest,  and 
made  of  the  operations  of  pulleys  and  cables  and 
windlasses  a  scenic  performance  which  might  end 
like  a  real  tragedy. 

The  master  simply  expected  his  loyal  servant  to 
do  his  work.  While  Friend  Fontana  was  raising 
an  obelisk  which  had  eluded  all  the  architects  of  the 
Renaissance,  Michelangelo  included,  the  Pope 
was  engrossed  in  his  own  work — politics.  The 
French   Ambassador   had  reached   Rome,  and 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  1G7 


entered  by  the  Porta  Angelica  straight  into  St. 
Peter's  Square.  The  Pope  moved  from  the 
Quirinal  to  the  Vatican  to  receive  him,  and,  as  he 
was  passing  along  the  city  street  called  Banchi,  the 
thunder  of  the  artillery  of  Castel  St.  Angelo 
warned  him  that  Fontana  had  fulfilled  his  expec- 
tations. The  French  Ambassador,  who  stared  at 
the  important  work,  had  time  to  ponder  on  the 
power  of  this  Pope.  Sixtus  himself  could  not 
restrain  his  emotion  on  this  memorable  occasion. 

The  French  Ambassador,  according  to  an  anony- 
mous chronicle  of  the  time,  expressed  the  opinion 
that  Sixtus  was  bringing  Rome  once  again  to 
its  former  majesty.  This  opinion  is  expressed 
in  another  way  by  contemporary  and  later  writers, 
who  said  that  Sixtus  V  tried  to  compete  with  the 
Csesars,  and  shared  their  vanity  in  putting  his 
name  in  evidence  on  all  his  monuments. 

The  name  of  Sixtus  V  still  strikes  every  visitor  to 
Rome ;  but  we  find  reasons  in  abundance  to  refute 
the  similitude  with  imperial  taste,  for  the  whole 
life  of  Sixtus  V  and  his  pontificate,  even  more 
than  his  earlier  biography,  show  a  stern  religious 
feeling.  This  anti-pagan  feeling  will  be  seen  more 
especially  in  the  following  chapter ;  perhaps  the 
raising  of  this  obelisk  should  have  been  reserved  for 
that.  But  even  keeping  to  the  events,  the  proofs 
speak  for  themselves.  From  the  Vatican  stand- 
point, the  raising  of  the  obelisk  was  only  the 
arrangement  of  a  pedestal  on  which  to  place  the 


168 


SIXTINE  ROME 


image  of  the  cross.  As  such,  the  whole  successful, 
though  difficult,  operation  appears  in  the  regular  ac- 
counts of  the  Diary  of  the  Master  of  Ceremonies. 

Later  he  was  to  have  the  opportunity  of  speak- 
ing of  an  even  greater  sanctification  of  pagan 
monuments,  when  the  statues  of  Peter  and  Paul 
were  placed  on  the  columns  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
and  of  Trajan ! 

Another  proof  is  in  the  book  of  Fontana  him- 
self. When  the  pedestal  was  finished  on  the  27th 
September,  he  not  only  reserved  a  place  for  the 
clergy  on  the  square,  but  also  recounted  the 
services  in  his  book.  He  quotes  the  verses  recited 
on  the  occasion,  all  referring  to  the  Cross.  The 
obelisk  was  exorcised  by  a  bishop,  and,  at  the  end 
of  the  rites,  the  cross,  containing  a  relic,  was 
hoisted  to  the  top  while  the  Swiss  Guards  fired 
their  arquebuses. 

The  cross  at  present  on  the  top  of  the  obelisk  is 
not  the  one  which  was  placed  there  with  the 
ceremony  tersely  described  by  Fontana,  and 
treated  at  length  also  by  Pietro  Galesino.  It 
became  so  weatherbeaten  that  it  had  to  be  changed 
during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Venuti  tells  us  in  his  book  on  papal  coins  (Numis- 
mata  Pontificum)  that  an  ordinary  workman  found 
a  very  ingenious  way  to  reach  the  top  of  the 
obelisk  for  that  purpose,  described  in  a  book  by  a 
certain  Lselius  Cosaltus,  published  in  1743,  to 
which  I  have  already  referred. 


A  LEAF  FROM  FONTANA's  BOOK. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  169 


A  monument  of  such  importance  as  the  obelisk 
together  with  the  detailed  recital  of  Fontana  have 
excited  the  curiosity  of  many  writers  after  him. 
The  art  historian  and  archaeologist  Bellori — who 
published,  in  1672,  a  book  of  the  lives  of  the  most 
important  artists  of  the  century  ending  with  that 
year — makes  some  clever  observations  on  the  sub- 
ject. He  says  that,  in  the  end,  the  system  applied 
by  Fontana  was  the  same  as  that  used  by  the 
Ancients,  which  could  be  proved  by  a  drawing 
from  a  bas-relief  in  the  square  of  Constantinople 
(this  last  indication  is  rather  vague  !).  Ranke,  and 
even  his  latest  editors,  believe  that  Fontana  knew 
the  description  given  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
of  the  raising  of  an  obelisk. 

According  to  Bellori,  the  four  bronze  lions — 
modelled  by  the  unfortunate  Prospero  Bresciano, 
as  Baglione  already  states  in  his  Lives  of  the 
artists — do  not  really  carry  the  obelisk,  though 
they  seem  to  do  so.  The  lions  with  the  stars  are, 
of  course,  taken  from  the  coat  of  arms  of  Sixtus, 
and  placed  there  for  aesthetic  reasons ;  the  weight 
is  carried  by  the  old  blocks  which  they  conceal. 

Bellori  is  much  troubled  by  the  fact  that  the 
obelisk  does  not  occupy  the  right  centre  of  the 
portico  constructed  under  Alexander  VII,  and  is 
not  on  the  surface  determined  by  a  perpendicular 
line  from  the  cross  of  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  and 
the  middle  of  the  facade.  The  obelisk  stands 
distinctly  to  the  north  of  this  imaginary  surface, 


170 


SIXTINE  ROME 


yet  nobody  who  comes  into  St.  Peter's  Square  will 
observe  that  the  obelisk  is  placed  nearer  to  the 
right-hand  portico.  Bellori  wonders  that  three 
such  expert  architects  as  Bartolommeo  Ammanati, 
Giacomo  della  Porta,  and  Fontana  could  pass  over 
this  mistake.  The  pole  which  Fontana  found  on 
the  square  is  to  blame  for  this.  It  was  not  easy  to 
measure  for  a  facade  which  was  to  come  in  the 
next  century,  and  a  cross  for  which  the  whole 
dome  had  still  to  be  built. 

This  little  difference  was  only  observed  later. 
Sixtus  V  was  perfectly  satisfied  with  what  had 
been  accomplished.  He  wrote  to  inform  the 
foreign  powers,  had  medals  struck,  ordered  the 
raising  of  the  obelisk  to  be  recorded  in  official 
chronicles,  received  congratulations  from  many 
countries,  gave  special  indulgence  to  devotees  who 
should  pass  the  cross,  and  made  his  Domenico  a 
Roman  noble  with  golden  spurs  ! 

The  news  quickly  spread  over  Italy  through  the 
reports  of  political  agents  to  the  Italian  rulers 
represented  in  Rome.  It  must  have  been  the 
topic  of  the  day  in  the  neighbouring  cities :  for 
instance,  in  Florence,  as  we  see  by  the  interesting 
diary  of  that  city,  treasured  by  Agostino  Lapini 
in  the  second  half  of  the  XVIth  century 
(published  by  Gius.  Odoardo  Corazzini  in  1900). 
The  Florentine  diarist  knows  all  the  principal 
facts  concerning  the  raising  of  the  obelisk. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  171 


Domenico  Fontana's  account  books  are  pre- 
served in  the  State  archives  in  Rome.  They  give 
in  figures  an  idea  of  what  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V 
meant.  In  four  years  (1585-1589)  1,000,000  scudi 
were  spent.  The  highest  amount  went  for  the 
Acqua  Felice:  255,341  scudi.  After  this  comes 
the  Sixtine  Chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  with 
nearly  90,000  scudi.  The  erection  of  the  obelisk 
of  St.  Peter's  and  the  construction  of  the  Vatican 
Library  cost  about  the  same,  37,000  or  38,000  scudi ; 
the  obelisk  of  St.  John  in  Lateran,  24,611  scudi; 
and  the  one  of  Piazza  del  Popolo,  10,337  scudi ; 
the  obelisk  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  may  be 
considered  cheap,  3000  scudi.  The  hospital  for 
beggars  demanded  rather  a  large  expenditure, 
31,500  scudi,  and  the  same  was  spent  on  the 
Quirinal.  The  "loggia  delle  benedizioni  "  of  St. 
John  in  Lateran  cost  11,000  scudi ;  the  palace  itself 
again  more  than  30,000.  The  restoring  of  Santa 
Sabina  took  717  scudi,  and  the  staircase  from  the 
Vatican  to  St.  Peter's  about  GOO  scudi.  The  Villa 
Montalto  figures  in  the  bill  for  30,000  scudi.  The 
fact  that  there  is  so  little  difference  between  the 
cost  of  a  palace  and  a  villa  may  be  considered 
eloquent !  Under  the  heading  "  different  streets," 
are  put  another  12,000  scudi.  In  this  list  the 
costly  dome  of  St.  Peter's  does  not  appear  at  all, 
as  it  belonged  to  another  architect. 

The  detailed  accounts  of  every  separate  work 
are  still  in  existence,  scattered  over  the  archives 


172 


SIXTINE  ROME 


of  the  State  and  of  the  V atican.  These  details  often 
have  a  curious  appearance,  when,  for  instance,  is 
mentioned  the  weight  of  the  cross  and  mountains 
which  have  to  be  placed  on  the  obelisk  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore.  Such  notes  bring  us  back  to 
prose  at  once !  In  general  the  accounts  are  un- 
interesting as  to  the  artists  mentioned,  as  when, 
for  instance,  Master  Cesare  Nebbia  and  Master 
Giovanni  Guerra,  painters,  present  their  bills  for 
work  executed  by  them  and  by  painters  under 
them. 

In  the  accounts  for  the  building  of  the  Palace 
of  St.  John  in  Lateran  we  are  at  least  cheered 
by  a  reference  to  Muziano  and  his  landscape 
painting. 

In  these  books  the  signature  of  Sixtus  V  often 
occurs.  He  signed  the  accounts,  not  only  as  a 
formality,  but  after  having  given  them  his  strict 
personal  attention.  Stevenson,  who  has  principally 
made  use  of  the  accounts  of  the  Vatican  Library,  has 
been  able  to  draw  a  general  scheme  of  the  papal 
finances  as  to  the  Pope's  constructive  and  destruc- 
tive activity. 

When  any  work  was  finished,  two  architects 
were  ordered  to  look  over  it  and  to  compare  its 
actual  worth  with  the  accounts  brought  in  by 
their  successful  colleague.  They  sent  their  report 
to  the  Pope  who  studied  it  at  his  leisure,  but 
nearly  always  ended  by  reducing  the  sum  and  by 
settling  the  account  in  his  own  way. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  173 


These  details  in  Italian  art  history  are  not 
limited  to  the  period  of  one  Pope,  nor  to  the 
characteristic  personality  of  the  former  Fra  Felice 
Peretti.  Wherever  we  look,  even  in  times  ap- 
parently so  poetical  as  the  Middle  Ages,  we  find 
regular  financial  traits  and  contracts  between  the 
artist  and  the  man  who  orders  and  pays.  The 
collections  of  printed  letters  by  Italian  artists  are 
full  of  the  strangest  details.  In  our  eyes  they 
seem  insulting  to  the  character  of  the  artists,  but 
everything  tends  to  show  that  it  was  not  so 
understood.  To  contract  to  "  paint  a  perfect 
likeness  with  real  good  colour,"  signing  beforehand 
a  document  to  that  effect,  or  to  receive  a  little 
sack  with  lapis  lazuli  carefully  weighed,  before 
making  use  of  this  precious  material  in  a  thing 
as  cheap  as  a  fresco,  would  not  content  any 
modern  painter.  The  artists  of  the  XVth  and 
XVIth  centuries  accepted  these  conditions  as  the 
ordinary  precaution  of  a  shrewd  patron. 

The  story  of  Fontana,  when  the  sun  of  his  glory 
went  down,  shows  that  none  of  the  precautions  he 
took  were  excessive. 

The  principal  merit  of  Fontana  will  always  lie 
in  his  reformation  of  the  plan  of  Rome  after  a 
well-conceived,  practical,  and  artistic  scheme.  No 
doubt  he  committed  the  unavoidable  fault  of 
destroying,  but  the  advantages  were  great  enough 
to  maintain  his  reputation.    The  ideas  which  in- 


174 


SIXTINE  ROME 


spired  both  him  and  Sixtus  V  foreshadowed  the 
future.  The  collaboration  of  a  Pope  and  an 
architect  prepared  Rome  for  the  use  of  following 
generations ;  they  impressed  the  mournful  seal  of 
their  time  on  the  outside  features  of  their  own 
buildings.  They  built  the  general  outline  of  the 
stage  upon  which  the  next  century  was  to  place 
brilliant  scenery. 

Rome  deserves  the  interest  of  all  who  study  the 
growth  of  modern  cities,  and  the  anatomy  of  the 
plans  of  past  and  future  towns.  The  basilicas  and 
older  antiquities  may  be  considered  as  permanent. 
Between  those  majestic  stones,  the  arteries  of 
principal  streets  have  a  free  motion,  but  the  stream 
of  the  public  highway  changes  its  course  but 
slowly. 

It  took  a  hundred  years  to  remove  the  city  life 
from  the  Via  Giulia  and  the  Banchi,  and  the 
principal  part  of  the  Carnival  from  the  Piazza 
Navona  to  the  enduring  Corso.  We  can,  as  an 
historical  excursion,  go  in  the  opposite  direction. 
Guided  by  history,  we  will  not  wonder  to  find  the 
great  bankers  like  the  Fuggeri  and  the  Florentines 
crowded  in  a  lower  Broadway,  of  which  the  apsis 
of  San  Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini  would  be  the 
Battery. 

Hiibner  has  made  of  the  walk  through  Rome 
under  Sixtus  V  the  most  exquisite  part  of  his 
book  about  the  Pope.  Here  is  the  page  re- 
lating to  the  quarter  near  the  Tiber,  translated 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  175 


from  the  attractive  French  of  this  diplomatic 
cicerone : — 

u  The  Via  Giulia  and  Monserrato,  the  faubourg 
St.  Germain,  the  fashionable  quarters  of  yore  are 
richest  in  palaces,  but  least  animated.  It  is  in  the 
Banchi,  in  the  long  Strada  Papale,  and  at  the  other 
side  of  the  Piazza  Navona,  in  the  opulent  quarter 
of  the  Spaniards,  in  the  streets  Coronari  and  Tor  di 
Nona,  that  the  Rome  of  Sixtus  V  displays,  not  its 
grandeur,  but  its  activity,  its  wealth,  and  its 
exuberant  vitality.  From  sunrise  to  the  Ave  Maria 
crowds  throng  in  its  badly  paved  but  always  cool 
and  shaded  streets.  As  we  come  nearer  to  the 
bridge  (of  Sant'  Angelo),  the  modern  palaces — that 
is,  those  which  were  built  within  the  last  thirty 
years — become  more  numerous.  These  are  the 
abodes  of  the  new  men,  of  prelates  enriched  by 
the  Monti  (financial  institutions  based  on  the  bond 
system),  but  who  are  not  rich  enough  to  live  as 
Cardinals,  who  for  their  vast  residences,  for  the 
gardens  around  them,  seek  and  find  in  the  hills  the 
space  and  air  that  they  require.  The  great  bankers 
also,  after  whom  this  quarter  is  named,  have  here, 
with  their  offices,  houses,  which  might  be  those  of 
princes." 

Hiibner  quotes  as  a  proof  the  reports  of  the 
Venetian  Ambassadors,  which  are  in  general  the 
best  correspondence  we  can  consult  about  the 
larger  cities  of  Italy  during  two  or  more  centuries. 


176 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Paolo  Paruto,  for  instance,  said  that :  "  The  public 
and  private  buildings,  the  temples  and  palaces,  the 
streets,  fountains  and  country  houses  built  in  later 
years,  would  be  sufficient  to  adorn  a  first-class 
city." 

By  this  the  Venetian  must  have  meant  the  upper 
part  of  Rome.  Sixtus  V  made  no  changes  in  the 
complicated  network  of  streets  around  Banchi. 
Only  since  Italy  as  a  kingdom  made  Rome  its 
capital  has  this  part  of  the  city  undergone  a  trans- 
formation by  the  large  perforation  of  the  Corso 
Vittorio  Emanuele,  including  an  opening  in  the 
former  quarter  of  the  Fuggeri,  around  the  present 
Museo  Barraco,  and  on  the  edge  of  the  modern 
bed  of  the  Tiber.  Recently  a  widening  of  the  Via 
de'  Coronari,  proposed  amongst  other  changes,  has 
raised  an  animated  discussion,  which  called  all  the 
friends  of  ancient  Rome  to  the  threatened  breach, 
to  exercise  the  beneficial  influence  of  opposition. 

The  present  proposition  is  intended  to  give  an 
outlet  and  passage-way  to  the  growing  traffic. 
The  metamorphosis  which  took  place  under  Sixtus 
V  also  had  for  an  object  the  connecting  of  the 
principal  places  of  worship.  Next  to  the  mediaeval 
Via  Sacra  and  the  road  of  the  "  Possesso,"  indi- 
cated in  one  of  the  frescoes  of  the  Vatican  Library 
— the  pontifical  Via  Triumphalis — he  desired  to 
create  an  easy  itinerary  for  pilgrims  and  devotees 
in  general.  There  was  a  kind  of  democratic  feel- 
ing in  this  idea  which  should  not  be  overlooked. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  177 


Some  writer  made  of  the  transformation  of 
Rome  under  Sixtus  V  the  subject  for  a  hymn  full 
of  pure  symbolism.  The  Escurial,  built  in  the  form 
of  San  Lorenzo's  gridiron,  fades  before  the  exalted 
vision  of  the  Cross,  formed  by  the  Via  Sistina  and 
Via  Pia  (Venti  Settembre),  or  the  star  of  Montalto 
irradiating  from  the  Quirinal,  as  it  attracted  the 
eye  of  a  certain  Bordini,  who  published  during  the 
reign  of  Sixtus  a  little  illustrated  volume  of  the 
Pontiff's  principal  works. 

Fontana  himself  explains  his  practical  and  sceno- 
graphical  plan  without  unnecessary  circumlocution. 
Like  many  men  of  talent,  he  is  modest  when  re- 
ferring to  the  masterpiece  which  was  destined  to 
stand  throughout  the  ages. 

The  wonderful  square  before  the  main  entrance 
of  the  Quirinal,  adorned  with  the  group  of  the 
Dioscuri,  gives  a  fine  idea  of  his  artistic  power. 
He  says  that  the  square  was  beautifully  arranged 
for  the  comfort  of  the  Consistories.  The  "  Strada 
Pia"  was  lowered  four  feet  to  afford  a  view  on 
Porta  Pia,  and  many  other  highways,  very  wide 
and  straight,  were  opened  ;  "  the  Pope  wished  to 
facilitate  the  way  for  those  who,  moved  by  devo- 
tion or  vows,  are  accustomed  to  visit  the  saintly 
places  of  the  city  of  Rome,  but  especially  the 
seven  churches,  so  celebrated  for  the  great  indul- 
gences which  they  bestow  and  the  relics  which 
they  contain.  In  this  way  everyone  can  pass  on 
foot,  on  horseback,  or  by  carriage  from  any  place 

N 


lYv'  • 

178 


SIXTINE  ROME 


in  Rome,  and  go  almost  directly  to  the  most 
famous  shrines." 

With  true  modern  spirit  Fontana  predicted 
that  the  direct  connection  of  the  most  important 
points,  which  had  before  only  been  reached  through 
long  turnings,  would  become  popular,  and  thereby 
greatly  increase  the  value  of  adjoining  properties. 
His  acumen  in  these  lines  proved  correct  as  to 
the  Via  Felice  (Via  Sistina,  Quattro  Fontane  and 
Agostino  Depretis)  and  its  continuation  in  the 
direction  of  Santa  Croce  behind  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore.  Papal  decrees  aided  the  intention  of 
citizens  who  built  along  this  way.  Even  by  a 
verdict  of  the  tribunal,  their  houses  could  not  be 
pulled  down.  Fontana  not  only  smoothed  the 
road  by  filling  up  valleys  to  make  an  equal  level, 
but  also  adorned  the  crossing  point  with  four  foun- 
tains (the  Quattro  Fontane),  building  on  one  of 
the  corners  the  palazzo  Mattei  (later  Albani). 
The  diarist  Ameiden  declares  that  the  Mattei 
built  their  palace  on  that  spot  in  order  to  please 
Sixtus  V. 

The  other  connections  were  between  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  and  San  Giovanni  (the  Via 
Merulana,  begun  under  Gregorius  XIII) ;  from 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  to  San  Marco  (the  Via 
Panisperna  to  Piazza  Venezia) ;  from  San  Lorenzo 
Fuori  to  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli  and  to  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore. 

The  important  reformations  that  Rome  under- 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  179 


went  in  that  quarter  by  the  building  of  the  railway- 
station  and  the  rectilinear  modern  quarters  did 
away  with  Sixtus'  beautiful  Villa  Montalto.  This 
villa  was  one  of  the  pioneers  climbing  up  the  hills. 
Unconscious  of  the  future,  but  already  original  in 
his  conceptions,  Cardinal  Felice  Montalto  had 
modestly  begun  the  conquest  of  the  desert.  The 
extension  of  Rome,  drawn  in  rough  lines,  started 
with  vineyards,  vegetables,  and  possibly  a  very 
unassuming  cottage.  In  the  middle  of  the  XVIth 
century,  the  Celius  already  contained  many  such 
spots.  (A  precise  topography  of  these  can  be 
taken  from  Lanciani's  Storia  degli  Scavi.)  The 
"villa"  follows  the  "vigna"  as  a  village  grows 
out  of  a  settlement. 

The  Villa  Madama  was  the  first  of  all  to  mount 
the  promontories  outside  the  city  walls.  More 
"giardini,"  the  Vatican  Gardens,  and  the  Orti 
Farnesiani  on  the  Palatine  followed.  Next  came 
the  Villa  Mattei  and  the  Villa  Montalto,  challeng- 
ing the  dread  felt  by  the  Romans  of  the  plain 
between  the  Monti  and  the  Tiber,  against  the 
Campagna  inside  the  walls  and  the  attending  fevers. 

The  ordinary  citizens'  habitations  first  gathered 
slowly  round  the  villas  and  afterwards  swamped 
them  like  floating  lava,  after  they  had  done  their 
work  in  making  these  parts  healthier  and  safer. 
Surrounded  by  cheaper  houses,  the  villas  lost  in 
value,  and  became  an  easy  prey  to  the  spirit  of 
speculation  ! 


180 


SIXTINE  ROME 


The  maps  of  Rome  in  the  XVIth  century 
give  some  idea  of  the  opening  of  this  steady- 
growth.  The  map  of  Bufalini  (1551)  portrays  the 
city  still  within  the  ridge  of  the  hills.  The  "  Torre 
delle  Milizie"  (at  the  turn  of  the  present  Via 
Nazionale,  already  called  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
Magnanopoli)  was  then  a  mere  boundary. 

The  real  "vigna"  appears  behind  Palazzo  Riario 
(the  place  is  now  between  Palazzo  Corsini  and  the 
statue  of  Garibaldi  on  the  Janiculus)  on  the  map 
of  Ugo  Pinardi  (1555).  This  may  be  a  consequence 
of  the  fact  that  the  map  is — like  most  maps  of 
the  XVIth  century — iconographical,  that  is,  a 
perspective  view  (seen  from  the  Janiculus).  The 
Vigna  Altieri  is  in  the  foreground  and  drawn  with 
more  detail,  but  we  know  from  another  source 
that  the  next  real  villa,  the  Villa  Mattei,  was  at 
that  period  in  the  course  of  building,  and  that 
the  only  one  of  any  importance  besides  these 
were  the  Orti  Farnesiani  on  the  Palatine,  also  in 
their  beginning. 

The  other  source  I  mean  is  the  Italian  History 
of  the  Excavations  in  Rome,  by  Professor  Lanciani. 
He  guides  us  over  the  hills  and  through  the  streets 
of  Rome  in  the  XVIth  century  with  the  greatest 
accuracy  that  topography  and  history  will  ever  be 
able  to  attain.  With  this  scientific  work  and  the 
assistance  of  the  maps  we  can  imagine  a  walk  in 
the  Rome  of  those  days. 

On  the  map  of  1555  the  Fontana  di  Trevi  and 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  181 


the  church  Santi  Apostoli  are  still  landmarks 
between  town  and  country.  The  most  advanced 
post  towards  the  battlefield  of  defeated  antiquity 
is  the  garland  of  houses  around  the  Capitoline 
hill.  They  advance  timidly,  where  the  sacred 
mount  of  the  metropolis  casts  its  shadow  in  the 
sunset. 

In  the  map  of  1561  private  dwellings  made  their 
first  rush  up  the  hills  and  reached  even  further 
than  the  remains  of  the  Templum  Solis.  A  narrow 
tongue  of  houses  follows  the  line  of  the  old 
Suburra,  from  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli  towards 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  In  1575,  on  another  map, 
they  seem  to  have  come  as  far  as  the  old  arch  near 
San  Vito,  which  they  have,  without  doubt,  reached 
on  the  clear  map  of  Marco  Cartaro  of  157G.  Small 
islands  of  buildings  cluster  near  St.  John  in  Lateran 
and  St.  Clemente ;  these  last  are  certainly  the 
palace  connected  with  S.S.  Quattro  Coronati, 
belonging  to  the  Spaniards. 

During  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V,  the  begin- 
ning and  extension  of  his  Villa  Montalto — covering 
the  whole  area  of  the  present  railway  station  and 
all  the  limits  of  the  modern  blocks  as  far  as  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore,  was  the  most  decisive  step  on 
new  ground.1  The  villa  shared  in  the  benefits  of 
the  Acqua  Felice  which  passed  through  its  terri- 
tory.   This  same  Acqua  Felice  may  claim  some 

1  See  the  map  and  the  fresco  S.  M.  Maggiore  (Vatican  Library) 
with  the  guarded  gate  of  the  villa. 


182 


SIXTINE  ROME 


credit  in  the  city's  next  extension.  Battalions  of 
houses  rose  in  close  ranks  between  the  old  Suburra 
and  the  new  Via  Panisperna.  They  were  supplied 
by  the  Acqua  Felice,  which  has  a  fountain  in  the 
very  centre  of  the  rows  in  Piazza  della  Madonna 
dei  Monti. 

The  palaces  of  Rome,  as  well  as  the  dwellings 
of  ordinary  citizens,  have  come  under  the  close 
attention  of  Baron  de  Hiibner  in  his  descrip- 
tions of  the  Italian  capital.  He  mentions  the 
frescoes  in  the  "  loggie "  of  the  Vatican,  made 
under  Gregorius  XIII  as  the  best  illustration  of 
the  aspect  of  Roman  streets  under  Sixtus  V. 
Indeed,  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  XVIth 
century  we  sadly  lack  the  guidance  of  good 
engravings.  It  was  only  in  the  next  century  that 
the  art  of  engraving  was  applied  to  such  subjects 
as  Roman  squares  and  streets.  Then  they  became 
innumerable,  either  by  local  artists  like  Falda,  or 
foreigners  like  Swanevelt  and  Jacques  Callot. 

Hiibner  wonders  that  so  few  mediaeval  citizens' 
houses  are  left,  but  explains  it  as  a  consequence  of 
the  great  poverty  which  prevailed  in  Rome  for 
more  than  a  century.  The  best  specimens  are  still 
in  Trastevere,  in  the  same  style  as  some  of  the 
old  houses  noticed  by  observing  tourists  in  small 
towns  like  Alatri,  Anagni,  and  Genazzano  (along 
and  by  the  road  towards  Naples),  and  in  the 
mediaeval  quarter  of  Viterbo. 

Another  kind  of  Roman  house  has  the  "  loggia," 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  183 


now  usually  walled  in,  next  to  the  roof,  like  the 
house  nearly  opposite  the  Castel  St.  Angelo,  on 
the  corner  of  the  Via  di  Banco  di  Santo  Spirito ; 
in  the  frescoes  of  the  time  of  Gregorius  XIII  to 
be  found  in  the  third-floor  "  loggia  "  of  the  Court 
of  St.  Damasus  in  the  Vatican  Palace,  this  house 
still  appears  with  an  elegant  open  "  loggia." 

In  the  XVIth  century — under  the  recent  in- 
fluence of  Tuscan  builders  —  the  characteristic 
doorway  with  its  mantle  of  rough-cut  stone  begins 
to  appear.  Even  in  the  plainest  facade  this  strong, 
self-reliant  entrance  gives  relief.  Later,  the  frame 
of  the  doorway  undergoes  the  influence  of  the 
newer-fashioned  windows  with  a  square  flat  band. 
Where  all  the  apertures  of  the  facade  are  squares 
of  this  description  the  building  is  rarely  attractive  ; 
so  much  uniformity  seems  to  announce  the  com- 
mercial style  of  tenement  blocks. 

Perhaps  the  best  house  ever  built  (1542)  for 
himself  by  an  ordinary  citizen  in  Rome  is  the 
existing  Palazzo  Sacchetti,  in  the  Via  Giulia 
(No.  43),  planned  and  built  by  the  architect 
Antonio  di  Sangallo  for  himself  and  his  family. 
Very  ugly  examples  of  tenements  are  easily  found. 
To  the  objection  that  few  would  seek  for  them,  I 
answer  that  they  assert  themselves  at  the  first 
arrival  in  the  Eternal  City. 

An  example  of  a  nobleman's  home  of  the  time 
of  Sixtus  V  is  the  beautiful  Palazzo  Valentini  (now 
Palazzo  Provinciale)  in  the  Piazza  Venezia,  de- 


184 


SIXTINE  ROME 


scribed  in  the  letters  of  Girolamo  Catena,  who 
mentions  in  his  publication  that,  in  August,  1588, 
several  antiquities  were  discovered  when  digging 
the  foundations. 

The  attraction  of  historical  walks  in  Rome 
becomes  greater  when  they  are  guided  by  the 
excellent  publications  of  Italian  and  foreign  spe- 
cialists. The  mediaeval  legends  of  Rome  can  be 
enjoyed  with  great  profit  in  such  books  as  the 
Topographia  Urbis  Bomce,  by  Urlichs,  containing 
descriptions  of  Rome  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Scholars  who  desire  to 
go  deeper  into  the  subject  will  find  in  that  book  a 
large  amount  of  information  concerning  the  con- 
tinuation of  classical  tradition  in  the  Rome  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  taken  from  numerous  genuine 
sources. 

For  more  general  study  and  even  as  an  in- 
tellectual pastime  I  cannot  too  highly  recommend 
the  atlases  of  de  Rossi  and  Major  Rocchi. 

The  usual  guide-books  for  Rome's  learned 
visitors  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  the  so-called 
Mirabilia  Urbis  Romce.  They  are  known  in 
different  publications  of  the  subsequent  centuries 
and  in  translations  into  various  languages,  especi- 
ally after  the  invention  of  topography.  In  a 
modernised  form,  after  the  year  1510,  by  Fran- 
cesco Albertini  (published  with  a  German  intro- 
duction and  notes  by  Schmarsow),  the  opusculum 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  185 


de  Mirabilibus  novce  urbis  Romce  leads  us  through 
the  new  Rome  of  Julius  II. 

Between  Julius  II  and  Sixtus  V  the  printing 
press  produced  a  copious  library  of  books  about 
Rome.  The  census  reports  published  from  the 
manuscript  by  Armellini  and  by  Gnoli  can  be 
used  as  the  most  reliable  collection  of  statistics 
and  topographical  dates. 

For  the  time  of  Sixtus  V  we  should  use  a 
description  of  Rome  discovered  in  1883  by 
Lanciani  in  a  manuscript  of  the  Barberini  Library. 
(He  also  published  a  document  of  topography 
called  the  Itinerarium  Einsidlense,  dating  from 
the  early  Middle  Ages.) 

This  publication,  known  to  archaeologists  as 
Codice  Barberiniano  XXX  89,  will  be  used  more 
extensively  in  the  next  chapter.  I  quote  here 
such  facts  as  delineate  the  outer  aspect  of  Sixtine 
Rome. 

It  goes  from  Magnanapoli  to  the  Cancelleria, 
and  then  to  the  Arco  di  Portogallo,  one  of  the 
two  demolished  arches  formerly  in  the  Corso.  It 
mentions  a  "  vigna  "  of  the  Massimo  family  near 
Santa  Sabina,  the  second  oldest  street  sign  in 
Rome,  in  the  Suburra  (dating  from  Alexander  VI) ; 
at  the  same  time  this  still  shows  where  this 
street,  continuing  the  Roman  name,  had  progressed 
under  the  same  Pope ;  the  Villa  Papa  Giulio, 
now  still  a  museum,  but  containing  at  that  time 
more  authentic  antiquities  than  the  present  place 


186 


SIXTINE  ROME 


possesses ;  the  Piazza  Colonna  and  the  Capito- 
line  Museum  in  its  first  century,  founded  14th 
December,  1471. 

The  museum  in  its  early  years  contained  some 
famous  bronzes,  such  as  the  6  6  Boy  extracting  the 
Thorn."  This  elegant  statue  must  have  been  found 
much  earlier,  for  it  gave  Brunellesco  his  inspira- 
tion for  a  figure  in  the  competition  for  the  bronze 
doors  of  the  Battistero  in  Florence.  In  the 
time  of  Sixtus  V  Fontana  may  have  presented 
the  museum  with  the  ball  from  the  top  of 
the  obelisk.  Grimaldi,  the  truthful  historian 
of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  the  basilica  of 
St.  Peter's,  mentioned  this  bronze  as  numbering  in 
the  Capitoline  collection  without  any  inscription 
(this  last  circumstance  being  contrary  to  what  he 
had  found  in  an  old  manuscript). 

The  author  of  the  Barberini  manuscript  notes 
the  empty  base  of  the  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
near  the  Lateran ;  the  oldest  street  sign  in  Rome 
on  Campo  de'  Fiori ;  "  Capo  di  Bove  "  (oxen-head  : 
the  tomb  of  Cascilia  Metella,  thus  called  for  reasons 
easily  understood !) ;  the  chapel,  founded  in  1563, 
marking  the  spot  of  Peter  and  Paul's  separation 
on  the  left  hand  of  the  road  between  the  city  gate 
and  St.  Paul's  ;  the  "temple  of  Vesta"  facing  Schola 
Grseca ;  the  "  house  of  Cola  di  Rienzo "  still 
known  to  him  as  the  "house  of  Pilatus."  This 
name  came  from  mystery  plays  of  the  Middle 
Ages  in  the  form  of  processions  which  started 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA  187 


there  and  went  to  the  Arch  of  Lazzaro.  The 
tradition  had  slowly  vanished  in  the  time  of 
Sixtus  V,  or  at  least  had  become  obscure  to 
the  anonymous  author  of  Cod.  Barber.,  as  he 
says  that  "  he  does  not  know  why  the  place  is 
called  so." 

He  goes  on  to  point  out  another  street  sign  in 
the  Via  della  Rupe  Tarpea,  both  street  and  sign 
being  due  to  Gregorius  XIII ;  the  old  Fontana  di 
Trevi,  with  the  name  of  Nicholas  V  ;  the  tower, 
Tor  de  Conti,  which  he  calls  "  well  built,  though 
rather  old  and  dilapidated."  The  Palazzo  Spada 
even  then  exercised  its  charm,  and  the  inscription 
of  Lorenzo  Mallio  on  his  house  in  the  "Piazza 
Giudea"  (now  Via  Portico  d'Ottavia)  already 
attracted  public  attention,  because  of  the  size  of 
the  characters — "  more  than  a  foot  high,"  he  says. 
Then  the  new  villas,  like  the  Villa  Medici,  belong- 
ing to  the  Cardinal  "who  laid  down  the  hat  and 
took  to  himself  a  wife  " ;  he  follows  the  old  city 
walls,  visits  the  Palazzo  del  Duca  d'Urbino,  which 
has  given  way  to  the  present  Palazzo  Doria ;  and 
studies  the  maps  in  the  gallery  of  the  Carte  Geo- 
grafiche,  which  must  then  have  been  in  their  early 
freshness.  Outside  the  city  he  reaches  the  so- 
called  tomb  of  Nero,  and  gathers  knowledge  from 
the  people  who  have  crossed  the  country  around 
Rome. 

I  will  certainly  return  to  this  manuscript ;  it  is 
specially  interesting,  showing  a  taste  for  antiquity 


188 


SIXTINE  ROME 


in  the  times  of  this  Pope,  proved  by  the  collec- 
tions described  by  the  author. 

Amongst  the  palaces  famous  in  the  days  of 
Sixtus  V,  which  sheltered  persons  of  renown  or 
men  who  rose  in  fortune  under  Fra  Peretti,  we 
must  note  the  following : 

The  Palazzo  Lante,  which  belonged  to  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany.  It  was  built  (1513-1516)  for 
the  Medici  (Giuliano  de'  Medici,  brother  of 
Leo  X),  as  their  coat  of  arms  on  the  ground  floor 
still  shows.  During  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V,  the 
French  Ambassador  Pisany  lived  there.  After- 
wards, the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany — formerly 
Cardinal  Ferdinando — occupied  it  as  his  Embassy 
in  Rome.  The  Marquis  Pisany  used  to  entertain 
the  aristocracy  of  Rome  in  this  palazzo,  and 
betting  ran  high  on  occasions.  Already  in  that 
time  the  question  arose  which  led  to  so  many 
difficulties  in  the  following  century,  when  large 
sums  were  played  for  in  the  ex-territorial  palaces 
of  the  diplomatic  representatives.  But  not  even 
Sixtus  V  would,  as  Hiibner  states,  allow  the 
Governor  of  Rome  to  interfere. 

Outside  this  particular  case  Sixtus  did  not 
show  any  clemency  towards  amusements  based  on 
chance.  He  forbade  betting  in  general,  as  we  have 
seen.  Playing  with  dice  was  punishable,  even  on 
the  onlookers,  by  a  fine  of  100  scudi  for  the  first 
time,  200  the  second,  and  300  the  third.   For  those 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  189 


who  could  not  pay  their  fines,  corporal  punishment 
and  even  the  galleys  followed.  Playing-cards 
were  taxed  by  stamps. 

Professionals  who  endeavoured  to  make  a 
science  and  business  of  Chance  had  a  hard  time 
under  Sixtus  V.  Perhaps  some  had  predicted 
their  own  destiny  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign. 

The  one  form  permitted  was  astrology  about  the 
weather — an  innocent  art  still  exercised  in  Italy 
under  the  authorship  of  a  mystic  Barbanera.  The 
gentle  profession  of  palmist  even  was  discounten- 
anced. 

The  name  of  the  Medici  was  attached  to  a 
palazzo,  now  better  known  under  another  name, 
Palazzo  Firenze,  actually  the  seat  of  the  Ministry 
of  Justice,  and  kept  up  with  such  care  that  it 
does  not  strike  one  as  an  old  building.  The 
courtyard  and  the  enclosed  "  loggia "  of  glass  in 
the  rear,  still  speak  of  its  origin  and  antiquity. 
Florence  has  other  reminders  in  the  Eternal  City 
at  which  we  do  not  wonder,  when  we  remember 
the  number  of  important  Tuscan  Popes  who 
resided  here,  the  influence  of  Tuscan  art,  and 
the  high  financial  standing  of  the  Florentine 
bankers,  who  had  branch  offices  even  as  far  away  as 
Bruges  in  Flanders.  I  quote  this  last  instance 
purposely,  as  the  financial  dealings  of  Florence 
were  in  direct  relationship  with  the  spreading 
of  artistic  influences.  (To  the  attention  of  the 
German    scholar,   I    commend  the   articles  of 


190 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Dr.  A.  Warburg  about  the  connection  between 
art  and  commerce  in  Florence  itself,  and  the 
commercial  relations  between  Florence  and  Bruges, 
published  separately  in  the  Jahrbiicher  der 
Preussischen  Kunstsammlungen.  The  paragraphs 
about  the  famous  painting  of  van  der  Goes  in  the 
Uffizi  are  among  the  keenest  and  most  pene- 
trating researches  about  life  and  art  in  reciprocal 
relation.) 

Under  Leo  X  de'  Medici  (1513-1521)  thirty 
Florentine  banks  existed  in  Rome.  The  seat  of  the 
Florentines  was  then,  of  course,  near  the  business 
quarter,  where  the  church  of  S.  Giovanni  dei 
Fiorentini  stands  as  a  Tuscan  reminder,  as  also  the 
beautiful  lily  in  bas-relief  on  the  wall  of  a  house 
opposite  and  the  appellation :  Via  del  Consolato 
(the  Florentine  "  consulate  ").  In  the  XVIIth  cen- 
tury their  place  in  the  banking  world  of  Rome 
was  usurped  by  the  Genoese,  who  still  are  pre- 
eminent on  the  Roman  Exchange. 

The  diarist  Ameiden,  in  his  Relazione  di  Roma, 
16 Al  (in  a  Barberini  manuscript),  writes  :  "  Many 
other  families,  however  old  and  noble  in  their 
own  country,  but  who  have  not  yet  passed 
the  second  generation  of  citizenship  in  Rome, 
came  from  Florence  and  Genoa  for  some  banking 
business  which  often  died  in  the  cradle !  After 
the  Genoese  had  become  rich  by  commerce  with 
Spain,  they  left  these  towns,  too  much  exhausted 
by  usury,  and  brought  their  profits  to  Rome.  Now 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  191 


about  600,000  scudi  go  out  of  Rome  to  Genoa 
every  year,  and,  as  this  is  a  notable  sum,  it 
exhausted  the  Exchange  here  in  a  short  time." 

The  name  of  the  Medici  is  certainly  most  in 
evidence  in  the  villa  on  the  Pincian  hill.  In  the 
time  of  Sixtus  V,  Cardinal  Ferdinando  de'  Medici 
had,  in  the  year  1576,  started  a  treatise  to  buy  the 
ground  and  the  villa  (built  between  1544  and  1560  by 
Annibale  Lippi)  according  to  a  printed  document. 
The  Cardinal  lived  for  a  while  in  the  villa  and  kept 
there  a  small  zoological  garden.  The  Dutchman, 
Arnold  Buchellius,  notes  it  as  a  curiosity.  When 
the  Cardinal  had  left  the  city  and  taken  off  the 
purple,  he  sent  from  Florence  for  his  exotic 
menagerie,  of  which  bears,  lions,  and  ostriches 
seem  to  have  been  the  most  extraordinary 
samples. 

The  whole  set  was  shipped  from  the  harbour  of 
Rome,  then  at  Ripa,  most  probably  to  Leghorn. 
Lions  were  not  unusual  in  Rome,  at  least  in  a 
state  of  captivity.  The  city  kept  a  lion  on  the 
Capitol  as  early  as  1283.  Once,  the  city  lion 
escaped  (1408),  to  be  found  later  and  captured 
by  a  passing  policeman  at  the  foot  of  the  Capito- 
line  hill.  Another  lion  killed  several  children 
who  came  too  near  his  cage,  The  criminal  was 
executed  (1414),  but  his  noble  body  received 
burial.  The  most  amusing  incident  occurred  with 
his  successor.  The  animal  having  died,  the  keeper 
ever  afterwards  persecuted  the  city  with  a  claim 


192 


SIXTINE  ROME 


for  a  " life-long"  salary  for  the  care  of  the  lion. 
The  demand  of  the  guardian  of  the  dead  beast  is 
certainly  unique  in  the  annals  of  sinecures. 

The  personality  of  Cardinal  Ferdinando,  who  had 
not  received  the  highest  ordinations,  and  for  this 
reason  could  leave  his  ecclesiastical  post  when 
political  reasons  called  him,  become  a  Grand 
Duke  and  marry  soon  afterwards,  should  be 
familiar  to  all  visitors  to  Florence  from  the  statue 
in  the  Piazza  dell'  Annunziata,  made  in  1640  by 
order  of  his  nephew,  thirty  years  after  his  death, 
out  of  the  metal  of  captured  Turkish  guns  (Pietro 
Tacca  moulded  it  after  the  model  of  Giovanni 
Bologna).  In  the  splendid  portrait  of  Eleonora 
di  Toledo  (by  Bronzino)  in  the  Uffizi,  the  little 
boy  with  large  eyes,  standing  near  his  mother, 
was  once  supposed  to  represent  him  as  a  child, 
though  later  researches  contradict  this  theory. 

Medici's  rival  in  the  esteem  of  Sixtus  V  was  old 
Cardinal  Alessandro  Farnese,  who  died  under  the 
pontificate,  spending  his  last  years  either  in  the 
Palazzo  della  Cancelleria  (its  gate  is  the  work  of 
Fontana,  done  after  the  Cardinal  Alessandro 
Montalto  had  been  appointed  vice-cancelliere),  in 
his  summer  homes  Caprarola  and  Palo,  or  in  his 
garden  on  the  Palatine,  the  "  Orti  Farnesiani,"  still 
in  existence.  In  his  own  palace,  the  Palazzo 
Farnese,  architect  and  workmen  were  still  busy,  as 
the  loggia  facing  the  Tiber  was  not  finished  until 
1589.    Caprarola  and  Palo  often  received  guests 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  193 


coming  to  or  leaving  Rome,  as  a  first  or  last 
resting  place,  in  a  day's  journey. 

Sixtus  V  spent  one  night  at  Palo  on  his 
journey  towards  Civitavecchia.  The  castle,  with 
its  mediaeval  air,  still  to  be  seen  from  the  railroad, 
often  lodged  most  important  personages  when 
they  had  reached  Civitavecchia  in  galleons  from 
Marseilles,  or,  like  the  Spanish  Ambassador,  from 
Barcelona  to  Genoa  over  sea,  and  over  land  along 
Civitavecchia  and  Palo.  The  inner  road  for 
travellers  by  land  usually  passed  through  Siena 
and  Viterbo.  The  last  halt  was  at  Civita  Castel- 
lana,  or,  nearer  to  Rome,  at  Castelnuovo  di  Porto, 
for  ordinary  travellers,  who  were  not  honoured 
with  hospitality  at  Castle  Bracciano  or  Villa  Cap- 
rarola.  Civita  Castellana  was  a  crossing  point 
over  the  road  which  led  by  Terni  to  the  pilgrim's 
goal,  Loreto.  Though  these  places  have  recently 
again  been  brought  into  better  connection  with 
Rome,  they  are  not  yet  visited  as  much  as  they 
deserve.  The  walk  from  Castelnuovo  back  to 
Prima  Porta  by  the  old  Via  Flaminia  offers 
majestic  views,  and,  at  the  first  sight  of  St.  Peter's 
dome,  one  feels  a  thrill  of  emotion  of  a  much 
purer  nature  than  at  the  end  of  a  tiresome  journey 
by  rail.  To  those  who,  in  our  days,  still  wish  to 
accomplish  sentimental  journeys,  it  means  much 
to  know  that  they  share  the  feelings  of  former 
generations  along  the  wayside. 

In  Caprarola,  evocations  of  the  past  naturally 
o 


194 


SIXTINE  ROME 


become  intensified.  The  XVIth  century  seems 
nearer  in  the  long  street  with  the  Farnese  lilies 
everywhere,  leading  up  to  the  "  Rocca."  The 
Rocca,  a  mild  form  of  Acropolis,  the  high  fortifica- 
tion typical  of  mountainous  Italy  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  is  the  right  name  for  the  building,  rising 
straight  on  a  rectangular  basis.  The  small  village 
at  its  foot  reminds  us  of  a  mediaeval  settlement 
under  the  protection  of  a  castle.  The  gloomy 
style  of  private  houses  of  the  middle  of  the 
XVIth  century,  especially  in  the  pontificate  of 
Gregorius  XIII,  prevails  in  this  Farnesian  spot. 
The  bare  strength  of  Monte  Soracte  and  its 
severity  suits  this  historical  scenery  very  well. 

On  the  road  to  Viterbo,  the  deserted  hamlet  near 
the  old  Veji  still  bears  the  name  of  the  family ;  it 
is  called  Isola  Farnese.  The  Cardinal,  coming 
from  Caprarola,  had  passed  through  this  place, 
when  a  foreign  tourist,  the  afore-mentioned 
Buchellius,  met  him  on  the  Via  Cassia,  near  the 
so-called  tomb  of  Nero.  The  same  spot  is  men- 
tioned in  Montaigne's  Travels.  The  French 
philosopher  said  that  the  ground  was  not  very 
convenient  for  military  marches,  as  it  was  cut 
open  by  deep  crevasses.  This  observation  strikes 
me  as  very  cold  and  practical,  and  I  like 
to  turn  my  thoughts  from  this  stern  man  to 
the  painters  and  engravers  of  the  following  cen- 
tury, who  so  dearly  loved  that  same  valley,  the 
"  Insugherata." 


i 


Photo.  Mosc 

Map  in  Caprarola,  showing  the  New  World. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  195 


The  villa  at  Caprarola  is  often  mentioned  in  the 
daily  chronicles  of  the  time  of  Sixtus  V,  when 
travellers  of  importance  departed  or  arrived. 

The  next  stop  was  often  Bagnaja — the  present 
Villa  Lante — belonging  to  Cardinal  Gambara, 
whose  name  still  occurs  to  all  visitors  of  Viterbo, 
whence  Bagnaja  and  the  Villa  can  easily  be  visited 
in  an  afternoon. 

This  Villa  was  a  bone  of  contention  in  the  time 
of  Sixtus  V.  Cardinal  Gambara  died  in  May, 
1587,  and  at  once  the  question  arose  as  to  whether 
Sixtus  V  would  imitate  the  example  of  Julius  III 
and  give  the  "delicious  place"  to  his  "nipote" 
(nephew,  or  near  relative  in  general) ;  if  not,  it 
would  come  into  the  possession  of  the  Bishop  of 
Viterbo.  The  Bishop,  resting  this  claim  upon 
a  verdict  of  Pius  V,  went  to  the  place  and  found 
to  his  great  surprise  that  Cardinal  de'  Medici  was 
urging  his  right  as  heir  of  Baldovino  del  Monte, 
a  nephew  of  Julius  III.  The  Pope  decided  in 
favour  of  the  Apostolic  Chamber,  as,  in  his  opinion, 
the  money  spent  by  Cardinal  Gambara  in  embellish- 
ing the  place  belonged  to  the  Church,  and  did  not 
come  from  his  own  funds.  The  vice-legate  of 
Viterbo  was  ordered  to  execute  the  decree.  On 
June  3,  only  a  few  weeks  after  the  question  had 
been  raised,  Cardinal  Alessandro  Montalto  received 
the  governorship  of  Bagnaja  (where  the  emblem  of 
the  papal  coat  of  arms  still  shows  the  accessories  of 
the  group  of  the  principal  fountain  :  mountains, 


196 


SIXTINE  ROME 


and  pears),  as  successor  of  the  poetical  biographer 
of  Christopher  Columbus. 

Bagnaja  already  had  a  widely-spread  reputation 
before  the  time  of  Sixtus  V.  Montaigne,  who 
visited  the  place  in  September,  1581,  put  it  on  a  line 
with  Tivoli  (the  Villa  d'Este)  and  Pratolino  (near 
Florence).  The  waterworks  pleased  him  espe- 
cially, and  his  sceptical  mind  was  not  displeased 
by  the  capricious  inventions  of  the  engineer,  a 
certain  Tomaso  da  Siena  who  had  placed  in  a  boat, 
on  one  of  the  little  lakes,  a  couple  of  arquebusiers 
shooting  water  from  their  weapons.  So  far  he 
belonged  to  his  generation,  and  shared  the  general 
taste  for  playful  applications  of  water  and  water- 
power.  I  do  not  know  if  any  of  the  water- 
organs  described  with  admiration  by  tourists  of 
former  centuries  is  still  in  working  order.  We 
all  know  of  the  water-clock  on  the  Pincian  hill 
in  Rome,  which  goes  fairly  steadily.  .  .  .  Often 
it  stops. 

A  curious  example  is  the  set  of  fountains  in  the 
Vatican  garden,  representing  an  altar  fully  adorned. 
But  even  there  a  practical  spirit  has  employed  the 
waters  with  which  the  effect  is  produced ;  they 
drive  electric  dynamos  for  the  Apostolic  Palaces. 

Villa  d'Este  is  a  name  to  be  handled  with  care 
when  spoken  of  during  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  two  villas  of 
that  name  existed  at  that  time :  one  at  Tivoli, 
and    one  in    Rome,   on   the    Quirinal,  which 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  197 


gradually  made  way  for  the  growing  pontifical 
palace.  Both  villas  were  founded  by  Ippolito 
d'Este,  Cardinal  of  Ferrara  (1572).  Under  Sixtus 
V,  another  Cardinal  d'Este  often  lived  in  the  villa 
at  Tivoli,  and,  as  Cardinal  representing  the  interests 
of  France  in  the  Holy  College,  he  offered  hos- 
pitality there  to  Pisany,  the  diplomatic  representa- 
tive of  that  country,  when  he  had  to  leave  Rome 
for  a  while  on  account  of  political  dissensions  with 
the  Pope. 

The  Quirinal  hill  under  Sixtus  V  contained 
several  villas.  The  most  famous  of  these  was, 
next  to  the  Villa  d'Este,  the  villa  built  by  Cardinal 
Rodolfo  Carpi  de'  Principi  di  Carpi,  who  in  the  year 
1554  owned  a  "vigna"  near  the  property  of  the 
deceased  Cardinal  Grimaldi.  The  Villa  Carpi 
afterwards  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  family 
Sforza. 

The  whole  territory  of  the  Quirinal  hill,  with  all 
its  details,  is  clearly  portrayed  on  the  map, 
"  Lafrery-Duperac,"  and  treated  in  the  above- 
mentioned  Italian  History  of  the  Excavations, 
with  every  point  of  interest  for  the  student  of 
topography  and  archaeology. 

The  Palazzo  Borghese  was  begun  in  the  reign  of 
Sixtus  V.  The  Avvisi  relate,  May  21,  1586,  that 
the  Spanish  Cardinal  Dezza  bought  the  Palazzo 
del  Griglio,  "  near  the  Ortaccia,  a  place  worthy  of 
the  Spaniards."  The  Ortaccia  had  a  very  bad 
reputation.    The  sneer  at  the  Spaniards  remains 


198 


SIXTINE  ROME 


on  account  of  the  letter-writer.  Cardinal  Dezza 
paid  17,000  scudi  for  the  palazzo.  In  the 
following  July,  the  palace  in  its  early  form  was 
almost  completed.  It  must  have  been  a  very 
modest  residence.  The  Cardinal  was  eccentric 
and  enjoyed  some  strange  pastimes,  amongst  them 
being  the  following  amusement :  to  shake  French 
and  Spanish  coins  against  each  other,  shouting, 
"  Guerra  !  guerra  !  "  and  then,  laying  them  peace- 
fully apart,  to  exclaim,  "  Paz  !  Paz  !  " 

The  palazzo  of  the  Sapienza — now  still  the 
University  building  in  Home — was  restored  under 
Sixtus  V.  Lectures  were  given  there  every  day. 
The  chief  place  in  the  scientific  world  jof  Rome 
was  taken  by  Fulvio  Orsini,  after  the  demise  of 
the  world-famous  Muretus  (1585).  The  life  and 
works  of  Fulvio  Orsini  have  been  described  by 
de  Nolhac  in  a  book  which  only  pretends  to  give 
a  reconstruction  of  his  library,  as  its  title,  La  biblio- 
theque  de  Fulvio  Orsini,  indicates,  but  which  also 
contains  much  information  about  the  interesting 
world  around  him,  far  more  than  the  sub-title, 
Contributions  a  Vhistoire  des  collections  d'ltalie  et  a 
V etude  de  la  Renaissance,  would  lead  us  to 
expect. 

Of  great  use  for  the  history  of  science,  literature, 
and  art  about  the  year  1600  is  also  the  book  of 
another  Frenchman,  Dejob,  about  the  influence 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  {de  V Influence  du  Concile 
de  Trente  sur  la  Liitterature  et  les  Beaux-arts  chez 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  199 


les  Peuples  Catholiques).  Both  books  are  written 
with  French  elegance  and  very  pleasant  to  read, 
for  the  authors  have  known  how  to  present  the 
results  of  their  serious  studies  in  a  most  agreeable 
form. 

The  anecdotal  side  of  Roman  scholars  at  the 
end  of  the  XVIth  and  the  early  XVIIth  century 
is  to  be  found  in  a  diverting  book  by  a  certain 
Janus  Victorius  Roscius,  or,  in  his  Greek  name, 
Johannes  Nicius  Erythraeus,  who  died  in  Rome  in 
1647.  He  called  his  book  Pinacotheca — picture 
gallery.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  contain  pictures, 
treated  with  great  liberty  of  fancy,  rather  than 
real  portraits,  and  not  a  few  caricatures.  The 
founder  of  Christian  archaeology,  Bosio,  is  treated 
very  harshly.  The  story  that  this  explorer  gave 
banquets  inside  the  Catacombs,  indeed,  such 
clamorous  feasts  that  the  people  passing  overhead 
were  frightened  away  by  this  sound  of  resurrec- 
tion, makes  any  intelligent  reader  suspicious ! 
Another  story  about  a  singular  scientist,  who 
lived  more  or  less  like  Diogenes,  seems  a  little 
less  impossible. 

Italy  has  seen  a  great  many  individualities  out- 
side the  ordinary,  and  Rome  has  seen  many 
prophets  since  the  Sibyls  ! 

This  singular  type  in  the  Pinacotheca  dressed 
very  poorly,  carried  his  money  around  in  a  bag, 
bought  the  best  fish  in  the  market,  and  treated 
himself  to  his  own  cooking  and  exquisite  wines,  in 


200 


SIXT1NE  ROME 


a  single  room,  where  the  rest  of  his  time  was 
devoted  to  reading  the  works  of  classical  philoso- 
phers, his  examples  through  life !  In  that  man 
the  material  for  a  Doctor  Faustus  was  lost.  He 
might  at  least  have  sat  for  one  of  the  many 
paintings  representing  even  more  abstracted  col- 
leagues while  preparing  an  attack  on  the  great 
Unknown,  or  seeking  the  trying  secret  of  gold- 
making  in  a  dusty  pawnbroker's  shop. 

Erythrasus  considered  all  eccentric  geniuses  with 
a  pleased  but  disapproving  eye.  His  heart  was 
with  those  of  a  well-balanced  nature,  and,  when  he 
can  praise  and  admire,  his  anecdotes  are  not  less 
good  than  his  satirical  ones.  Real  Roman  air, 
like  a  heavy  scirocco  wind  with  the  smell  of  old 
damp  ground  and  walls,  pervades  his  descriptions. 
He  is  very  Roman.  He  contributes  to  the  defini- 
tion already  so  difficult  to  work  out,  of  the  Roma 
Romana,  including  the  Roma  Romanesca. 

His  collection  of  lives  opens  with  a  scholar,  who 
died  at  the  age  of  ninety-four  in  the  first  year  of 
the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V,  a  Spaniard  named 
Martinus  Azpilcueta  (fl586,  June  21st).  His  epi- 
taph and  bust  are  in  the  entrance  of  the  Portuguese 
church,  Sant'  Antonio  dei  Portoghesi.  He  started 
his  career  in  Portugal,  came  to  Rome  and  gained 
the  favour  of  three  Popes :  Pius  V,  Gregorius  XIII, 
and  Sixtus  V.  Gregorius  XIII  loved  him,  as 
Erythraaus  tells  us,  "  so  much,  that  when  the 
Pope  went  through  the  city — on  horseback  as 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  201 


usual,  so  strong  was  he  even  in  his  old  age — and 
passed  by  his  house,  he  always  called  him  out  and 
kept  him  talking  an  hour  or  so  in  the  road."  This 
learned  man  in  his  latter  years  was  accustomed  to 
dictate  his  work  so  quickly  that  his  amanuensis 
had  difficulty  in  following  the  course  of  his  speech. 
He  observed  an  extremely  frugal  diet,  maintain- 
ing such  good  health  that,  when  over  ninety 
years  of  age,  he  carried  the  heavy  monstrance 
in  a  procession  around  the  church  Sant'  Andrea 
delle  Frate.  On  this  occasion  the  people  com- 
pared him  with  Simeon  the  Just  carrying  Christ 
in  his  arms.  In  his  younger  days,  in  Salamanca 
and  Toulouse,  he  gave  morning  lectures  in  canonic 
law  and  spent  part  of  the  afternoon  in  looking 
after  the  sick  people  in  the  hospital,  making  their 
beds  and  feeding  them. 

As  a  child,  Erythrasus  had  known  this  Azpil- 
cueta,  and,  during  his  early  years,  had  often 
quarrelled  with  his  brother  for  the  honour  of 
bringing  the  good  man  his  salary,  sure  of  not  being 
sent  away  without  a  few  coins.  Their  uncle 
should  by  right  have  carried  out  this  little  mis- 
sion, but  he  allowed  the  children  to  do  so. 

Sixtus  V  did  not  forget  himself  and  his  succes- 
sors whilst  constructing  his  Sixtine  Rome.  In 
the  regular  building  up  of  the  city,  followed  by 
the  succeeding  pontiffs,  he  takes  a  conspicuous 
place  also  for  his  work  in  Apostolic  Palaces  :  he 


202 


SIXTINE  ROME 


built  the  Lateran  and  added  to  the  Vatican  and 
Quirinal. 

The  history  of  the  Vatican  Palace  is  very 
intricate.  Perhaps  Sixtus'  part  in  the  construc- 
tion is  the  clearest,  like  an  added  chapter  instead 
of  general  revision.  His  part  is  solid,  square,  and 
dominating,  and  the  eye  wanders  naturally  from 
the  Cathedral  to  the  Palace,  still  the  residence  of 
his  successors  ;  none  amongst  them,  though,  has 
taken  his  name,  owing  to  the  reason  that  though 
Sixtus  Quintus  sounded  well,  Sixtus  Sixtus  would 
not  have  done  so. 

The  Belvedere,  the  gallery  of  Gregorius  XIII, 
the  courtyard  of  Bramante,  the  Borgia  apartments 
are  cardinal  points  in  the  complex  buildings,  and 
form  a  sort  of  ring  which  the  wing  of  Sixtus  V 
closed  in  a  definite  way.  After  Sixtus  V's  suc- 
cessor, who  completed  that  part,  only  a  few 
additions  of  any  importance  have  been  made  to 
the  Vatican  Palace,  as  a  residence.  The  chief 
expenditure  for  building  purposes  in  the  XVIIth 
century  went  first  to  St.  Peter's  and  then  to  the 
Quirinal. 

The  Sixtine  Palace  was  an  extension  of  the 
Loggie,  a  happy  prolongation  of  the  verandah  in 
which  the  Popes  went  out  to  enjoy  the  sunny  air 
and  the  view  of  the  city.  The  decision  was  surely 
not  taken,  as  is  supposed,  for  the  pleasure  of  looking 
at  the  obelisk,  but  for  reasons  of  health,  as  finally 
some  of  the  Popes  became  aware  that  the  damp 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA  203 


quarters  near  the  court  and  the  rear  shortened 
their  lives.  I  learned  that  some  of  the  internal 
removals  of  the  Popes  and  their  households  con- 
stitute a  question  which  may  not  be  resolved  even 
after  special  studies. 

In  studying  History,  we  often  come  to  a  blank 
page  where  it  is  least  expected,  and,  in  Italy,  we 
cannot  be  too  careful  when  that  happens.  The 
sources  of  information  are  so  numerous  and  so 
various,  and  civilisation  is  here  so  much  older  than 
in  other  countries,  that  historiography  in  Ausonia 
never  comes  to  a  real  dead  point.  The  peninsula, 
divided  in  many  States  and  containing  several 
cities,  each  its  own  centre  of  culture,  is  like  a 
great  i  -\saic.  Often  missing  parts  can  be  filled  in 
with  the  help  of  the  remaining  lines  and  figures. 
Burckhardt's  book  gives  a  fair  insight  into  the 
highly  developed  state  of  "  Culture  in  the  Renais- 
sance." A  glance  at  the  bookshelves  of  one  of 
the  well-arranged  reference  sections  in  Italian 
libraries  will  help  to  widen  the  new-comer's  ex- 
pectations of  a  pleasant  study  of  that  period. 

I  should  be  glad  if  I  could  feel  that  this  book 
will  help  to  plan  out  fresh  Roman  studies  in  later 
times.  Taking  the  afore-mentioned  incident  (of 
household  removals)  as  an  example,  the  lacunae 
might  convince  us  that  the  material  is  rich  ;  if  it  were 
not  so,  we  should  not  be  surprised  that  no  informa- 
tion be  forthcoming  for  one  particular  detail, 
though  it  is  true  that,  from  the  middle  of  the 


204 


SIXTINE  ROME 


XVIth  century,  such  details  have  been  better 
studied  than  the  history  of  Rome  as  a  whole, 
excepting  in  the  classical  work  of  Ranke  and 
the  very  solid  biography  of  Sixtus  V  by  Baron 
de  Hiibner. 

The  "  rat  de  bibliotheque  "  is  a  domestic  animal 
in  Rome. 

Go  to  a  real  Roman  library  on  a  nice  spring 
day,  or  in  October,  and  you  will  understand  it. 

Take  the  Casanatense,  or  the  Angelica,  or  the 
Vallicelliana. 

The  temperature,  often  cold  in  winter,  is  now 
very  agreeable.  The  light  falls  from  large  high 
windows,  throwing  golden  touches  on  the  old 
walnut  or  mahogany  shelves  and  over  yellow-grey 
parchment,  with  its  browned  innocence  of  calf 
bindings,  faded  gold  characters  and  withered  gilt 
ornament.  The  volumes  stand  in  groups  of  the 
same  size  ;  an  army  in  order  of  battle.  On  those 
shelves  lie  undiscovered  mines,  forgotten  church- 
yards, catacombs  for  a  few  worshippers.  .  .  . 

The  best  known  example  of  a  Roman  library 
"  rat "  was  the  Abbate  Cancellieri,  who  hardly  ever 
printed  a  page  without  a  footnote,  and  often  pages 
of  notes  with  barely  one  line  of  text  at  the  top. 
He  touched  on  nearly  every  subject  connected 
with  Rome  :  an  amazing  whirlwind  of  facts,  dates, 
and  quotations  from  books  and  manuscripts. 

The  Vatican  Library  has  his  heritage  of  manu- 
script books.    He  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  205 


XIXth  century,  near  the  Fontana  del  Mas- 
cherone,  behind  Palazzo  Farnese.  Amongst  his 
most  interesting  and  readable  works — I  mean 
readable  as  to  the  composition,  not  the  print, 
which  is  microscopical — is  a  small  book  about  the 
climate  of  Rome. 

The  palace  of  Sixtus  V  was  made  for  the  purpose 
of  enjoying  the  sun  and  the  fresh  air,  as  is  seen  by 
the  inscription  bearing  his  name  above  the  entrance 
leading  to  papal  audiences  in  the  Cortile  di  San 
Damaso.  Sixtus,  like  other  pontiffs,  added  to  what 
he  found  in  existence.  This  system  continues 
regularly,  carefully,  all  the  time.  A  walk  through 
the  Vatican,  now  open  to  the  public,  can  be  made  an 
historical  journey  through  the  subsequent  reigns  of 
the  Popes,  before  and  since  his  pontificate,  reflect- 
ing the  style  of  their  different  times.  Lately  great 
care  has  been  taken,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
artist  Seitz — much  better  here  as  an  architect  and 
decorator  in  historical  styles  than  as  a  creator  in 
his  mosaics  for  the  tomb  of  Pius  IX  in  San  Lorenzo 
Fuori — to  keep  up  the  predominating  features  of 
each  epoch.  For  instance,  the  reference  library 
of  the  Vatican  remains  in  the  style  of  the  rooms 
made  and  decorated  under  Sixtus  V.  The  Borgia 
apartments  are  artistically  lighted  in  the  fashion  of 
their  time.  The  decoration  of  these  apartments  is 
applied  in  the  new  Pinacotheca,  planned  by  Seitz, 
who  died  before  it  was  solemnly  opened. 


206 


SIXTINE  ROME 


The  journalists  of  the  time  of  Sixtus  V  wrote  as 
early  as  the  spring  of  1587,  that  the  Pope  had 
made  known  his  intention  "to  complete  the  circuit 
of  the  Loggie."  Perhaps  they  meant,  to  close  in 
the  four  sides  ;  but  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  Sixtus  V 
conceived  this  plan,  which  would  have  altered  the 
character  of  the  famous  Loggie. 

It  took  two  years  before  the  plan — in  its  more 
reasonable  form — came  to  execution.  On  the 
30th  April,  1589 — the  architect  Fontana  mentions 
it  in  his  book — the  work  had  been  begun.  Since 
then  the  expenses  for  the  Vatican  Palace  are 
regularly  noted  in  the  account  book  of  the 
Introitus  et  Exitus  of  Sixtus  V,  1000  scudi  at 
a  time  ;  for  instance  :  in  the  month  of  September, 
1589,  four  times  1000  scudi.  The  immediate 
successor  of  Sixtus  V — Urbanus  VII,  who 
reigned  but  one  month — retained  Fontana  as 
his  architect,  giving  him  15,000  scudi  to  continue 
the  work,  and  intending  to  place  the  coat  of  arms 
of  Sixtus  V  on  the  building. 

The  Vatican  Palace  was  finished  under  Clemens 
VIII,  when  Fontana  had  already  left  Rome.  The 
history  is  written  on  the  facade  of  the  building : 
the  windows  are  still  adorned  with  elements  of  the 
coat  of  arms  of  Sixtus  V,  the  frieze  appertaining 
to  the  Aldobrandini  armoury. 

The  Lateran  Palace — "  built  by  one  Pope  " — as 
Fontana  states  with  satisfaction  for  his  master  and 
himself — did,  not  as  a  residence,  please  the  high 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  207 


dignitaries  for  whom  it  was  destined.  The  funda- 
mental idea  had  been — according  to  the  biogra- 
pher of  Sixtus  V,  Galesinus — to  give  the  Pope 
an  abode  near  the  church  of  his  episcopate,  St. 
John  in  Lateran.  But  that  was  not  sufficient 
to  compel  anybody,  either  the  Pope  or  the  Sacred 
College,  to  remain  there  more  than  was  strictly 
necessary,  although  the  building  was  constructed 
with  that  idea — it  was  too  distant  from  St.  Peter's 
to  continue  the  mediaeval  custom. 

The  inner  decoration  is  so  far  interesting  as  it 
shows  the  awakening  study  of  the  early  times  of 
Christianity,  associated  with  this  spot  by  Constan- 
tinus  and  Helena.  The  day  was  not  far  off  when 
the  learned  Baronius  and  his  school  would  go  out 
in  the  Campagna  stretching  behind  the  palace  to 
seek,  in  the  neglected  underground  passages  in 
the  catacombs,  lasting  documents  for  that  history. 
This  circle  seems  to  be  intelligently  completed 
with  the  present  museum  of  Christian  archaeology, 
and  the  marvellous  inscriptions  of  the  catacombs 
walled  in  the  courtyard  loggie.  Does  not  Rome 
everywhere  present  volumes  of  the  history  of 
civilisation  ? 

Sixtus  V  surrounded  himself  with  pictures  of 
his  own  Rome,  placing  them  in  the  Vatican 
Library,  in  his  Villa  Montalto,  and  also  in  his 
pontifical  palace,  showing  the  city's  transforma- 
tion under  his  rule.  Those  who  are  interested  will 
find  them  in  the  largest  room  on  the  floor  once 


208 


SIXTINE  ROME 


containing  the  Lateran  picture  gallery,  and  where, 
in  another  room,  the  mosaic  of  Caracalla's  Baths 
is  still  shown.  The  panel  representing  the  former 
gardens  of  Cardinal  du  Bellay  in  the  semi-cir- 
cular Esedra  of  Diocletian's  Baths,  the  splendid 
entrance  of  the  present  Via  Nazionale  and  the  view 
towards  Porta  Pia  from  the  square  before  the 
Quirinal  are  well  worth  a  few  steps.  A  fine  set 
of  reproductions  of  drawings  and  rare  prints  of 
Diocletian's  Baths  and  their  surroundings  illus- 
trates an  article  by  the  Italian  Director-General 
of  Fine  Arts,  Corrado  Ricci,  in  the  Bollettino 
(TArte  of  1909,  concerning  the  readaptation  of  the 
original  plan  of  Michelangelo  for  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli. 

The  Lateran  Palace  surely  was  neglected  soon 
after  Sixtus  V.  In  the  travels  of  the  Prince  de 
Conde,  who  visited  Rome  in  1622,  it  is  related 
that  "  the  palace  is  falling  in  ruins,  and  only  used 
to  store  corn  " ! 

I  have  not  found  it  mentioned  that  Sixtus  V 
made  any  lengthy  stay  in  his  new  palace.  He 
remained  there  a  few  hours  at  the  most.  His 
favourite  summer  resorts  were  the  Quirinal  or  his 
Villa  Montalto. 

The  activity  of  Sixtus  V  and  of  his  two 
architects,  Domenico  Fontana  and  Giacomo  della 
Porta,  has  on  different  points  of  Rome  attacked 
venerable  structures — old  churches.  We  find  our- 
selves with  Sixtus  at  the  beginning  of  an  era  of 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  209 


thoughtless  restorations  and  more  alarming  inno- 
vations and  additions  which  have  only  come  to  a  de- 
cided end  in  the  reign  of  the  present  Pope  Pius  X. 
The  leading  experts  and  his  aesthetical  advisers 
of  the  very  artistic  pontiff,  who  already  as  Cardinal 
Sarto  gave  proof  of  a  sound  and  solid  taste  in 
matters  of  art,  have  adopted  a  system  of  res- 
toration which  may  be  called  exemplary.  The 
studies  of  de  Rossi  and  the  revival  of  art  history 
in  Italy  have  produced  this  great  result.  The 
rehabilitation  of  ancient  Christian  art  can  be  seen 
in  the  catacombs  of  SS.  Nereo  and  Achilleo  at 
the  Via  delle  Sette  Chiese  (between  San  Paolo 
Fuori  and  San  Sebastiano).  A  fine  specimen  of 
a  restored  basilica  is  to  be  found  in  the  interior 
of  Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin.  The  recognition 
of  the  Romanic  style,  as  the  style  for  Rome,  has 
brought  forward  the  new  churches  in  the  upper 
quarters.  There  we  have  the  proof,  even  between 
a  hybridical  conglomeration  of  architecture,  apt 
to  make  a  "  villino "  and  even  any  number  of 
"  villini,"  that  a  return  to  the  apsis  of  San  Giovanni 
e  Paolo  is  one  of  the  highest  inspirations  to 
be  followed  in  Rome.  A  comparison  between 
the  church  of  San  Gioacchino  in  the  Prati,  and 
the  Roman  parish  churches  lately  created,  or  the 
difference  between  the  mosaics  on  Pius  IX's 
tomb  and  the  decoration  in  the  crypt  of  Monte 
Cassino,  will  at  once  prove  the  progress  made  in  a 
few  years ! 
p 


210 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Much  depends,  of  course,  on  personal  and  racial 
feelings.  It  may  be  that  those  new  Roman 
churches  will  displease  many  strangers  and  many 
Italians,  but  they  will  be  recognised  by  scholars 
and  artists  as  an  improvement  due  to  the 
study  of  the  elements  and  history  of  Christian 
art. 

It  is  regrettable  that  a  part,  at  least,  of  this 
tribute  to  the  high  standing  and  worth  of  early 
Christian  art  and  Roman  architecture  did  not 
always  raise  its  voice  when  the  fate  of  old  places 
of  worship  was  to  be  discussed,  and  before  many  a 
destruction  had  been  decided  upon. 

The  notes  or  drawings  made  on  those  occasions 
remain  precious  sources  of  information.  The  inner 
decoration  of  San  Paolo  Fuori,  before  the  great  fire, 
is  quite  well  known  to  us  from  a  collection  of 
drawings. 

That  is  little,  compared  to  the  valuable  manu- 
script of  Grimaldi,  now  among  the  treasures  of  the 
Vatican  Library,  and  to  be  preserved  for  ages 
to  come,  by  a  special  system,  invented  by  the 
Librarian  Padre  Ehrle :  of  pasting  sheets  of  thin 
silk  veiling  over  each  page.  It  contains  in  notarial 
style  and  with  numerous  illustrations  drawn  and 
painted  by  hand,  the  entire  history  of  the  demo- 
lition of  old  St.  Peter's  and  of  the  construction 
of  the  new  church  during  the  same  period.  It 
would  seem  as  if  from  an  intuition  this  document, 


DOMEN1CO  FONT  AN  A  211 


of  the  size  of  a  heavy  volume,  had  been  set  as  a 
defence  against  the  reproaches  of  posterity  ! 

The  remodernisation  of  ancient  basilicas  and 
churches  since  the  Middle  Ages  has  been  inspired 
by  many  different  reasons  and  causes. 

We  see  that  laymen's  taste  is  responsible  for 
painted  wood  to  represent  marble,  wholesale  poly- 
chromated  stucco  and  paper  flowers ;  the  exhorta- 
tion of  Pius  X  has  not  yet  done  away  with  all 
detriments  to  art.  This  is  the  most  common,  but 
in  the  end  the  most  easily  removed  aesthetic  evil. 
The  situation  became  much  more  grave  when 
prominent  families  had  ancient  rights  on  certain 
chapels  and  used  their  privileges  to  transform 
these  in  accordance  with  the  current  taste.  They 
often  opposed  a  thorough  restoration,  alleging  the 
undeniable  right  of  peace  for  the  tombs  of  past 
generations  and  for  the  place  of  worship  for  the 
living,  marking  the  chapel  with  their  coat  of  arms 
or  honoured  names.  It  has  happened  that  art 
historians  removed  altars  in  order  to  discover  the 
frescoes  they  covered,  and  had  but  a  moment  in 
which  to  photograph  them,  after  which  the  much 
less  beautiful  disguising  monument  had  to  be 
replaced. 

Reviews  of  art  history  in  Italy  often  quote 
amusing  and  interesting  cases. 

I  remember  that  a  valuable  painting  on  wood  of 
the  XVth  century  was  once  used  as  a  door  ! 

Every  hope  of  redemption  is  lost  when  a  syste- 


212 


SIXTINE  ROME 


matic  innovation  has  been  undertaken  by  a  patron 
of  a  church,  who  is  an  obstinate  and  convinced 
enemy  of  ancient  forms.  I  fancy  that  Gambara, 
in  Viterbo,  was  of  that  kind.  At  least  it  occurs  to 
me  that,  on  a  trip  to  that  wonderful  town,  we 
often  denounced  his  name  or  his  emblem  where 
ancient  beauty  was  changed  for  ever  into  a  cold 
reasoning  structure  without  age  or  charms.  Some 
of  this  feeling  of  disappointment  comes  over  us 
when  we  look  at  ceilings  over-rich,  over-carved,  or 
over-gilded,  and  at  mosaics  too  bright  and  shining, 
in  the  basilicas  of  Rome  with  their  inborn  aris- 
tocracy and  their  pedigree  lost  in  the  first  centuries 
of  Christian  architecture. 

As  to  Sixtus  V,  we  have  so  many  contradictions 
that  we  hardly  know  which  was  his  standpoint  in 
the  great  question  of  inner  and  outer  decoration 
of  churches :  Christian  art,  based  on  history  and 
archaeology,  or  an  open  door  for  popular  taste.  In 
his  reign  and  under  his  supervision  were  built  the 
elegant  facade  of  San  Girolamo  a  Ripetta  (at  the 
corner  of  Via  Tomacelli)  and  the  very  dignified 
one  of  S.  Spirito  in  Sassia.  Those  belong  still  to 
the  noble  class,  of  which  the  facade  of  Santa 
Caterina  ai  Funari  is  not  so  much  a  leading 
as  an  unsurpassed  example.  In  the  chapel  of 
S.  Maria  Maggiore  the  taste  and  growth  of  the 
style  are  different.  The  outside  is  unassuming. 
The  interior — now  restored,  but  without  de- 
teriorating the  original — asserts  its  beauty.  The 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  213 


custom  is  continued  of  utilising  the  debris  of  the 
past. 

It  seems  that  the  best  part  of  the  old  Lateran 
Palace  was  used  in  the  decoration  of  the  chapel. 
No  Pope  before  Sixtus  V  could  have  done  this  and 
been  so  sure  of  his  principle.  The  luxuriant  style 
is  inaugurated.  Costly  carved  marble  reliefs  of 
difficult  workmanship  are  added  even  to  sepulchral 
monuments  in  order  to  convey  to  the  biographer 
the  allegorical  acts  of  the  two  Popes.  Here  we 
feel  the  approach  of  the  XVIIth  century  with 
the  luxury  and  theatrical  emotion  of  the  exagge- 
rated life-size  figures  in  the  altar  paintings.  We 
feel  the  warm,  wealthy  brilliancy  through  the  chill 
of  the  marble  Sixtine  Chapel  of  S.  M.  Maggiore. 

The  same  Pope  restored  S.  Sabina  and  did  not 
mar  the  integrity  of  its  rhythmic  composition. 

Again,  the  same  Pope  wept  before  the  frescoes 
of  San  Stefano  Rotondo — not  with  pity  for  its 
painters.  .  .  . 

The  reader  will  understand  that  I  give  up 
further  attempts  at  explanation. 

The  name  of  Sixtus  V  as  a  builder  of  Rome 
will  ever  be  connected  with  the  construction  of 
St.  Peter's  dome.  What  had  been  a  subject  of 
discussion  under  several  of  his  predecessors  came 
to  a  culmination  in  the  last  two  years  of  his  reign. 
The  custom  of  placing  the  name  of  the  pontiff, 
who  completed  a  building  or  its  important  parts, 


214 


SIXTINE  ROME 


brought  the  pontifical  denomination  of  the  former 
Era  Peretti  into  an  apotheosis  in  the  interior  ring, 
where  the  ribs  of  the  dome  meet.  If  Fontana's 
name  is  not  officially  coupled  with  Sixtus',  History 
has  rendered  him  justice  by  giving  him  the  place 
he  deserved  next  to  the  official  architect,  Giacomo 
della  Porta.  It  seems  that  the  solidity  of  the  con- 
struction— in  a  less  spherical  form  than  Bramante 
had  planned — belongs  in  many  ways  to  the  tech- 
nical genius  of  Fontana. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  plan  will  be  carried 
out  of  forming  a  museum  of  the  models  and 
drawings  belonging  to  the  fabric  of  St.  Peter's. 
Then  it  will  be  easy  to  acquire  an  idea  of  the 
curious  treasures  at  this  moment  reposing  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  public  on  the  roof  of  the  basilica. 
In  the  Daedalian  corridors,  some  narrow  and  dark, 
like  secret  passages,  halls,  little  rooms,  flying  stair- 
cases, tightly  locked  doors,  sudden  glass  domes  of 
chapels  far  beneath,  heavy  cables  to  ring  unseen 
bells,  only  a  "  sampietrino  "  (the  popular  name  for 
the  servants  of  the  basilica)  can  find  his  way.  In 
case  we  might  go  astray  in  those  elevated  cata- 
combs of  higher  St.  Peter's,  tiles  with  clear  short 
indications  have  been  cemented  everywhere  ;  these 
tiles  warn  the  "  sampietrino,"  who  is  familiar  with 
the  ground  plan  of  the  basilica,  exactly  over  which 
of  its  sections  he  is  standing. 

I  have  heard  that  this  labyrinth  still  contains  a 
library  and  some  archives.  I  did  not  see  them,  but 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA  215 


I  can  imagine  that  they  must  be  inspiring.  A  new 
territory  in  the  Vatican  is  always  astonishing,  large, 
rich,  and  interesting. 

The  museum  of  the  Fabric  of  San  Pietro  on  the 
cupola  is  quite  confusing.  It  has  models  of  the 
erection  of  the  obelisk,  or  at  least  of  some  obelisk 
— I  do  not  think  that  it  is  Fontana's — samples 
of  wood  used  for  a  "castello,"  models  of  intelligent 
construction  by  Maestro  Zabaglia  (author,  I  believe, 
of  a  book  on  the  subject,  and  surely  organiser 
of  the  Sampietrini-corps),  to  reach  every  point 
inside  the  dome — models  of  other  domes,  like 
that  of  the  Pantheon  and  of  St.  M.  del  Fiore  in 
Florence,  used  for  comparison ;  and  last,  but  not 
least,  the  model  of  St.  Peter's  made  by  Antonio 
da  San  Gallo  after  the  original  proposed  by  Bra- 
mante  to  Julius  IT.  This  wooden  model  represents 
the  basilica  with  two  separate  towers.  It  is  of 
such  large  dimensions  that  one  can  enter  and 
obtain  an  idea  of  what  the  church  would  have 
been  if  the  Greek  cross  had  been  applied  instead 
of  the  Latin  one.  This  model  was  brought  there 
by  Clemens  XI  in  1704. 

Grimaldi,  in  his  official  report  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  old  St.  Peters,  writes  about  this  model, 
and  also  speaks  of  another,  in  plaster  and  wood, 
which  was  the  original  plan  of  Michelangelo, 
"keeping  the  dome  a  little  lower.  But  Giacomo 
della  Porta,  Michelangelo's  pupil,  planned  it 
higher,  thinking  that  it  would  be  stronger  and 


216 


SIXTINE  ROME 


more  beautiful.  He  even  changed  the  dome  over 
the  Gregorian  chapel,  which  was  constructed  rather 
low,  after  the  model  of  the  great  dome." 

A  copy  in  wood  of  Buonarotti's  model  dated 
1557  is  said  to  be  in  the  museum  of  the  church. 

The  old  "  campanile  "  (bell  tower)  of  St.  Peter's 
survived  through  the  transformation  of  its  sur- 
roundings until  very  late,  when  its  demolition  be- 
came a  necessity  for  the  construction  of  the  facade. 
In  the  month  of  October,  1610,  this  typical  Roman 
campanile,  emerging  from  the  newly-spreading 
church  in  all  its  stages  of  development  (on  the 
coloured  drawings  of  Grimaldi's  manuscript  as 
well  as  on  a  rare  drawing  of  Heemskerk),  was 
levelled  to  the  ground.  Its  bells,  one  dating  from 
the  year  1350,  another  from  1353,  were  brought 
over  to  the  dome  on  the  Gregorian  chapel.  Their 
inscriptions  are  known,  but  do  not  strike  us  like 
others  in  much  less  important  places. 

The  old  campanile  is  mentioned  by  Grimaldi 
in  his  valuable  description  of  the  ceremony  of 
placing  the  cross  on  the  top  of  the  dome  of  St. 
Peter's.  The  death  of  Sixtus  V  hindered  this 
Pope  from  placing  "the  cross  which  will  greet 
the  pilgrims  from  afar."  But  during  the  reign 
of  Clemens  VIII  the  clergy  assembled  at  the 
foot  of  the  campanile  had  the  joy  of  witness- 
ing their  seven  daring  colleagues — canons  of  St. 
Peter's — who,  garbed  in  the  dalmatica,  climbed 
to  the  top  to  be  present  at  the  placing  of  the 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  217 


cross.  On  the  day  before,  18th  November,  1593, 
Pope  Clemens  had  placed  relics  inside  the  arm 
of  this  cross  on  the  high  altar  of  St.  Peter's. 
Thence  it  was  hoisted  through  the  dome  while 
the  choir  sang  the  appropriate  antiphone : — 

"  Luce  splendida  fulgebis  et  omnes  fines  terrae 
adorabunt  coram  te.  Nationes  ex  longinquo 
ad  te  venient  et  munera  deferentes  adorabunt 
Dominum." 

During  the  service  on  the  following  day  the 
principal  verse  was  : — 

"Signum  salutis  pone  Jesu  Christe  super 
domum  istam  et  non  permittas  introire  angelum 
percutientem." 

The  hymn  accompanying  this  ceremony  could 
not  be  better  chosen.  The  allusion  to  the  danger 
of  lightning  was  certainly  not  out  of  place  ! 

The  lantern  and  the  dome  itself  have  often  been 
struck.  (I  found  the  first  stroke  of  lightning  which 
struck  the  unfinished  cupola,  mentioned  as  having 
happened  in  July,  1590.)  Also  to  this  cause  were 
attributed  the  mural  cracks,  which  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  Romans  in  the  year  1743.  Fissures 
had  already  been  observed  in  the  former  century, 
but  never  inspired  so  much  alarm  as  in  1743. 
The  rumour  went  through  the  city  that  "the 
dome  of  the  church  was  coming  down  to  thank 


218 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  foundation  for  having  supported  it  so 
long"! 

A  specialist  having  been  called  in  by  the  Pope 
declared  that,  if  the  dome  became  a  menace,  the 
only  remedy  would  be  to  demolish  it.  The  same 
man,  Marchese  Poleni,  professor  in  mathematics 
at  the  University  of  Padua,  after  a  long  examina- 
tion, found  a  less  drastic  cure,  proposing  to 
surround  the  dome  and  its  basis  with  five  iron 
rings ;  these  were  afterwards  placed  there  by  the 
famous  architect  Vanvitelli. 

Poleni  wrote  a  book  about  his  investigations 
in  company  with  Vanvitelli  in  those  high  regions. 
The  fear  of  serious  damage  had  already  sent  there 
a  number  of  visitors  of  all  ages  and  standing — 
mathematicians,  architects,  and  prelates.  The 
ascent  must  have  been  much  more  difficult  then 
than  it  is  now,  the  former  project  of  an  elevator 
having  only  just  been  realised.  (Elevators  were 
in  Rome  before  1743,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  Castel 
Sant'  Angelo,  where  the  shaft  and  lateral  rails  of 
an  elevator,  dating,  I  believe,  from  Leo  X,  are 
still  shown.) 

Our  esteem  grows  for  the  ascent  of  persons, 
who  also  in  ordinary  days  enjoyed  an  elevated 
position  memorised  in  numerous  marble  tablets 
grouped  along  the  walls  of  the  staircase  now  lead- 
ing to  the  cathedral's  roof,  when  we  realise  that 
their  achievement  was  a  hard  and  dangerous 
one. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  219 


Marchese  Poleni  and  his  companion  also  received 
a  special  indulgence  from  the  Pope  to  walk  up 
certain  staircases  in  St.  Peter's,  which  were  destined 
only  for  the  Canons  of  the  basilica.  These  stairs, 
leading  to  the  balconies,  were  situated  in  the 
four  immense  pillars  which  carry  the  dome.  The 
two  men  passed  along  the  winding  staircases,  care- 
fully studying  those  pillars,  in  order  to  discover 
the  truth  of  a  suggestion  already  made  in  the 
XVIIth  century  that  the  columns  were  weaken- 
ing, especially  on  account  of  the  four  niches 
opened  to  receive  the  gigantic  marble  statues. 
This  supposition  was  excluded,  and  scant  attention 
given  to  the  popular  idea  that  the  dome  had 
suffered  chiefly  from  lightning,  thunder,  earth- 
quakes, and  the  firing  of  artillery.  The  author 
cleverly  observes,  when  writing  about  the  public 
interest  in  his  extensive  work,  that  it  is  the 
natural  inclination  of  human  beings  to  ponder  on 
important  events,  even  though  hardly  understood 
by  them,  and  to  suggest  remedies  for  their  defects. 

Still  the  influence  of  exterior  causes  is  admitted, 
and  he  suggests  that  after  the  death  of  Michel- 
angelo the  work  of  the  drum  and  basement  of  the 
dome  having  been  discontinued  for  twenty-four 
years,  many  unprotected  parts  of  the  building 
became  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather 
in  this  interval,  and,  as  far  as  is  known,  decayed 
considerably. 

St.  Peter's  seems  to  be  the  spot  where  rain 


220  SIXTINE  ROME 


showers  make  their  first  entry  on  reaching  the 
city.  At  least  the  Romans  look  in  that  direction 
to  prognosticate  the  weather,  as  the  Florentines 
watch  their  Monte  Morello. 

The  changes  in  the  climate  of  Rome  were,  like 
every  important  aspect  of  life,  brought  into  rela- 
tion with  papal  deeds.  And  Sixtus  V  had,  ac- 
cording to  a  writer  of  the  XVIIth  century — the 
afore-mentioned  Ameiden — his  share  in  its  varia- 
bility, but,  for  the  rain  clouds  towering  behind 
St.  Peter's,  his  predecessors  should  be  made 
responsible ! 

Gregorius  XIII,  in  order  to  be  independent  of 
the  importation  of  wheat  brought  over  from  the 
lands  of  the  steady  enemies  of  the  Holy  See,  the 
Levant,  cut  down  part  of  the  woods  between 
Rome  and  the  sea  (placed  by  the  old  Romans 
under  the  protection  of  Deities),  and  converted 
them  into  vast  plantations.  From  that  moment — 
always  according  to  the  version  of  the  XVIIth 
century — the  atmospheric  condition  underwent 
notable  changes.  It  is  true  that  a  bank  of  hills 
rises  between  Rome  and  the  sea.  From  the  Isola 
Sacra,  between  Fiumicino  and  Ostia,  no  vista  of 
Rome  can  be  had  (I  am  told  that  seamen  discover 
the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  from  the  top  of  their 
masts  when  coasting  across  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber). 

Sixtus  V,  on  the  contrary,  may  have  accom- 
modated Rome  with  a  larger  supply  of  the  benefi- 


DOMENICO  FONT  AN  A  221 


cent  Tramontana  (north  wind)  by  destroying 
woods  north  of  Rome,  which  were  convenient 
hiding-places  for  brigands.  The  author  adds  the 
remarkable  statement  that  the  heavy  rainy  weather 
causes  a  fatigue  which,  according  to  a  special 
study  on  Roman  sicknesses,  is  felt  more  by 
"  forestieri "  than  by  those  who  are  born  here. 
Indeed,  it  is  usually  the  "  forestiere  "  from  foreign 
countries  who  complains  about  the  effects  of  the 
"  scirocco  "  (southern  wind). 

The  consequences  of  aerial  magnetism  on  the 
upper  part  of  St.  Peter's  were  usually  inspected 
on  the  lantern  at  the  top  of  the  dome  on  the  day 
following  a  storm.  The  workmen  told  Marchese 
Poleni  of  numerous  cases  of  lightning  flashes 
which  had  broken  off  entire  capitals  of  columns 
in  the  time  of  Bernini. 

Baldinucci,  one  of  Bernini's  contemporaries  and 
biographers,  adduces  the  lightning  storms  and 
their  effects  on  the  "  highest  building  in  Rome," 
as  a  defence  against  those  who  would  hold  him 
(Bernini)  responsible  for  every  crack  in  the  huge 
mass  of  brick  and  stone. 

Another  source  of  trouble  has  been  the  earth- 
quakes, which  occupy  a  place  in  the  literature 
about  the  organic  defects  of  St.  Peter's  and  its 
dome  during  the  lapse  of  time.  The  plaster  and 
mosaics  served  as  an  automatic  control.  A  piece 
of  mosaic  dropping  from  the  inner  cupola,  or  a 
crack  drawing  a  more  or  less  capricious  line  over 


222 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  stucco  lining  of  the  walls,  was  always  a  signal 
of  alarm. 

More  philosophic  minds  consoled  themselves 
with  the  reflection  that  everything  human  "  under 
the  moon"  is  bound  to  deteriorate.  Others,  in- 
clined to  accept  the  teachings  of  less  abstract 
views,  argued  from  examples.  If  the  cupola  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  in  Florence  has  endured  on 
a  territory  so  much  more  prone  to  earthquakes, 
why  not  the  younger  dome  of  St.  Peter's  ? 

The  nearer  example  of  the  Pantheon's  roof  was 
not  ignored.  "  Time,"  who  is,  according  to  an 
Italian  expression,  "  such  a  gentleman,"  has  given 
right  to  the  optimists.  The  dome  of  St.  Peter's 
may  need  constant  attention  and  occasionally  a 
new  coat  of  lead,  but,  nevertheless,  it  defies  the 
fury  of  the  elements,  and  still  remains  the  best 
example  of  the  solidity  of  the  work  accomplished 
under  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V,  notwithstanding  the 
great  rapidity  of  its  construction. 

It  seems  incredible  that  this  enormous  pile  should 
have  been  erected  in  less  than  two  years,  from 
the  15th  July,  1588,  to  the  14th  May,  1590,  even  if 
800  men  worked  constantly,  often  day  and  night. 
(800  is  the  highest  number  given ;  some  authors 
state  that  there  were  only  600.) 

On  the  19th  May,  1590,  the  last  stone  of  the 
dome  was  placed,  during  a  solemn  mass  in  the 
church  below.  This  probably  means  the  last  stone 
of  the  ring,  bearing  the  inscription  mentioning 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  223 


Sixtus  V,  which  was  doubtless  put  there  at  the 
very  end  of  his  life. 

The  Avvisi,  from  which  I  take  the  above  dates, 
prove  to  be  a  precious  source  of  information  for  the 
chronology  of  the  cupola,  which  is  more  obscure 
in  the  printed  sources.  They  tell  us,  for  instance, 
that  on  the  8th  of  August,  1590,  the  thirty-six 
columns  which  support  the  cupola  of  St.  Peter's 
were  completed.  The  plan  of  decorating  the 
interior  with  mosaics,  covering  the  exterior  with 
lead  and  gilding  the  ribs,  was  already  known 
in  Rome  on  that  date.  Grimaldi  relates  that  the 
mosaics  were  begun  in  1598  and  completed  in  the 
year  1612.  The  last  figure  to  be  finished  was  the 
Sanctus  Jacobus  minor. 

In  one  of  the  books  of  Introitus  and  Exitus  in  the 
Vatican  Archives  I  found  noted  on  the  10th  July, 
1590,  an  expense  of  1000  scudi  for  the  "  pavement 
of  the  cupola."  It  sounds  strange  at  first,  but  is 
explained  by  the  ingenuous  way  in  which  such 
things  were  noted  in  those  days.  It  certainly 
refers  to  the  pavement  of  the  church  under  the 
dome.  The  relatively  small  opening  high  above 
can  have  done  no  harm.  Here  perhaps  the  Pan- 
theon again  served  as  a  model. 

The  death  of  Sixtus  V  suspended  for  a  while  the 
works  in  the  basilica,  except  the  dome.  Not  only 
on  the  Vatican  hill,  but  over  the  other  seven 
classic  hills,  the  great  impulse  given  and  maintained 
during  his  pontificate,  lost  its  power.    A  look  at 


224 


SIXTINE  ROME 


his  unexecuted  plans  is  as  interesting  as  the  scheme 
of  the  unwritten  book  of  an  author,  or  a  painter's 
last  sketch  left  on  its  easel. 

The  inventory  of  Sixtus'  plans,  never  executed, 
contains  a  direct  road  from  St.  John  in  Lateran 
to  St.  Paul  outside  the  walls.  The  crossing  point 
of  the  walls  would  have  been  marked  by  a  gate 
near  the  bastions  added  to  the  Roman  walls  under 
Paulus  III,  behind  Caracalla's  Baths.  A  much 
more  dangerous  proposition  was  conceived  in  the 
stern  mind  of  Sixtus,  who  had  all  the  practical 
notions  of  a  reformer  of  modern  cities,  but  was  at 
times  too  thorough  ! 

He  planned  nothing  less  than  the  metamorphosis 
of  the  Coliseum  into  a  wool  factory !  The  ever- 
ready  Fontana  drew  the  conception  into  the 
cold  lines  of  an  architectural  ground  plan.  The 
basement  was  to  be  divided  into  so  many  shops 
for  the  workmen,  who  would  be  chosen  from 
the  beggars  of  the  streets.  On  the  first  floor  they 
were  to  have  their  living-rooms,  and  a  fountain 
was  to  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  famous 
circus.  With  this  master-stroke  the  industry  of 
wool-spinning  would  have  been  introduced,  a 
problem  of  public  charity  solved,  and  a  useless 
mountain  of  brick  rendered  profitable  on  a  large 
scale  ! ! !  The  plan  would  have  become  a  reality 
if  Sixtus  had  lived  till  the  autumn.  The  work 
of  levelling  the  road  leading  towards  the  Coliseum 
from  the  Tor  de'  Conti  was  begun. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  225 


The  much-quoted  Avvisi  give  a  few  dates.  One 
of  their  reporters  sent  the  following  notes  to  the 
Court  of  Urbino;  the  first  dated  April  11th, 
1590:— 

"On  Saturday,  as  the  Pope  passed  by  the 
Coliseum,  he  planned  to  restore  that  great  bulk 
and  make  it  habitable,  and  to  bring  there  masters 
and  workmen  of  the  wool  industry.  ..." 

and  the  second  note  soon  after,  on  the  18th  of  the 
same  month : — 

"  They  are  actually  working  at  the  Coliseum  for 
the  purpose  I  wrote  about,  and,  to  begin  with,  they 
are  bringing  to  the  level  of  the  street  of  the 
Arch  of  Constantine  all  the  loose  earth  around 
that  building." 

We  have  an  idea  what  this  loose  earth  around 
the  Coliseum  meant  from  a  drawing  reproduced  in 
Egger's  edition  of  the  Codex  Escurialensis  (draw- 
ings referring  to  Rome,  by  a  pupil  of  Ghirlandajo, 
about  1475).  Around  the  Coliseum  are  regular 
dunes  where  a  tribe  of  gipsies  seem  to  have  made 
their  encampment. 

The  institution  of  the  wool-spinning  industry 
might  have  proved  a  failure  like  the  silk  industry 
in  Diocletian's  Baths. 

Concerning  the  proposal  made  to  Sixtus  V  by  a 
Jewish  contractor  in  1589,  and  Sixtus'  Free  Trade 
decree  permitting  the  bringing  in  of  the  necessary 
raw  materials  with  scarcely  any  taxes,  and  about 
Q 


226 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  dangerous  epidemic  breaking  out  amongst  the 
silk-workers  in  1589,  see  an  article  by  Tomassetti  in 
the  Studii  e  Documenti  di  Storia  e  Diritto  giving 
plentiful  information. 

The  mind  of  the  populace  must  have  been 
somewhat  struck  by  the  destructive  plans  of 
Sixtus  V.  The  first  feeling  of  alarm  was  identical 
with  what  we  see  happening  everywhere  when  the 
reform  of  a  city  plan  is  proposed. 

Sixtus'  plan  for  the  Coliseum  would  not  have 
been  easily  accepted  by  the  Roman  population. 
Even  though  it  had  the  bad  reputation  of  being 
haunted  (read,  for  instance,  in  Benvenuto  Cellini's 
autobiography,  his  experiences  in  the  Coliseum),  the 
Romans  did  not  want  an  ominous  operation  in  that 
neighbourhood.  The  vooc  populi  once  stopped  an 
explorer  at  the  base  of  the  Arch  of  Constantine, 
accusing  him  of  an  intention  to  undermine  it. 
The  distich  of  the  Barberini-Barberi  is  another 
world-known  instance  of  the  conservative  love  of 
the  Romans  for  their  Coliseum. 

It  is  even  said  that  other  Barbarians,  long  before 
the  Barberini,  schemed  to  blow  it  up,  and  to  this 
day  the  holes  are  shown  which  were  made  for  that 
purpose. 

The  name  of  Sixtus  is  still  in  the  Roman  folk- 
lore associated  with  the  Coliseum,  and  I  should 
not  wonder  if  that  story  had  some  connection  with 
his  well-intentioned  but  easily  misunderstood  plans 
for  the  amphitheatrical  factory. 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  227 


Domenico  Fontana  saw  not  only  this  plan  but 
many  others  frustrated  by  the  death  of  Sixtus. 

His  was  still  the  catafalque  built  temporarily  in 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Requiem  mass — coram  corpora — when  the  body 
of  his  former  master  was  brought  there  after  its 
ritual  year  of  repose  in  St.  Peter's  (August  27th, 
1591).  It  afforded  him  an  opportune  moment  for 
bringing  forward  the  great  chapters  of  the  Pope's 
life  in  which  he  had  played  a  conspicuous  part. 

Catafalques  are  made  even  now  in  Italy  by  fore- 
most artists ;  that  erected  to  King  Humbert  in 
the  Pantheon,  for  instance,  was  made  by  the  late 
Sacconi,  the  architect  of  the  monument  for  Victor 
Emanuel  II.  Sacconi  obtained  a  marvellous 
effect  of  light  by  closing  the  opening  in  the  roof 
by  a  disk  suspended  so  near  the  aperture,  that  the 
light  could  only  glide  along  its  sides. 

Fontana  made  the  catafalque  in  the  form  of  St. 
Peter's  dome,  with  obelisks,  and  the  columns  of 
Trajan  and  Marcus  Aurelius  grouped  around,  and 
decorated  with  panels  representing  other  achieve- 
ments. The  whole  was  a  synopsis  of  the  great 
Pope's  life  by  his  architect. 

The  brilliant  Roman  period  of  Fontana's  life 
closed  soon  after  the  solemn  service  in  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore. 

Historical  sources  do  not  shed  much  light  on 
the  circumstances  of  his  final  departure  from 
Rome  and  journey  to  Naples.    However,  we  have 


228  S1XTINE  ROME 


several  analogous  cases  in  the  XVIIth  century 
when  artists,  fallen  into  disgrace  at  Rome,  go  to 
Naples  as  a  resource.  In  Rome  they  lived  under 
the  equator,  in  Naples  under  the  tropical  line  of 
art.  The  world  of  Naples  was  chiefly  Spanish, 
but  it  cordially  received  Roman  refugees  if  they 
showed  themselves  disposed  to  make  some  trifling 
changes  in  their  style  and  to  adopt  grandiose 
Spanish  notions.  The  Viceroy  of  Naples  con- 
sidered it  a  piece  of  good  fortune  when  he  could 
monopolise  in  a  kindly  way  an  artist  renowned  in 
Rome.  It  was  in  a  milder  form  the  serious 
question  often  raised  in  the  XVIth  century 
between  Italian  potentates  of  Italy  about  the 
possession  of  an  artist. 

I  have  put  together  what  information  can  be 
found  about  the  sudden  change  in  Fontana's  career, 
hoping  that  some  day  this  incident  may  be  ex- 
plained with  more  detail  from  documents  of  which 
we  are  now  ignorant. 

Great  authority  can  be  taken  from  Baglione's 
Vite  for  the  ordinary  sources. 

Baglione  was  a  contemporary  of  Fontana,  and, 
as  a  boy  of  fifteen,  had  worked  under  his  leader- 
ship at  the  Vatican  Library,  and  at  several  other 
buildings.  He  handled  the  brush  with  a  pre- 
cocious dexterity  which  attracted  the  pontiff's 
attention. 

His  strenuous  life  seems  to  have  exhausted  his 
young  strength ;  he  went  to  Naples  to  restore  his 


DOMENICO  FONTANA  229 


health,  and  did  not  return  to  Rome  before  the 
pontificate  of  Clemens  VIII  (1592).  Perhaps  he 
saw  Fontana  arrive  (at  Naples),  or  they  may 
have  passed  each  other  on  the  road  between  the 
two  cities. 

Afterwards  Baglione  lost  sight  of  Fontana, 
stating  that  he  died  under  Clemens  VIII  (1592- 
1605),  whereas  he  outlived  Clemens  by  two  years. 

Baglione  says :  "  When  the  Pope  (Sixtus  V) 
finally  died,  the  Cavaliere  Domenico  Fontana  was 
persecuted  by  some  ill-intentioned  people,  as  often 
happens  to  those  who  lose  their  good  oppor- 
tunities, of  which  the  world  is  the  theatre,  but 
Rome  the  stage.  Therefore  he  resolved  to 
go  to  Naples,  and  was  well  received  by  the 
Viceroy.  ..." 

Fontana's  own  book — in  the  second  edition, 
with  his  works  after  the  death  of  Sixtus  V — is 
very  cautious  and  diplomatic.  As  the  supplement 
is  dedicated  to  Neapolitan  magnates  he  manifests 
a  complete  turning  round  towards  the  sun  of  new 
favours.  Painful  points  are  avoided.  Gathering 
some  facts  from  his  own  declaration,  we  see 
that  he  was  still  labouring  for  Clemens  VIII  at 
the  bridge  over  the  Tiber  at  Borghetto.  He  says 
that  he  was  summoned  by  the  Viceroy,  and  speaks 
about  his  brother  Giovanni  Fontana  (a  specialist 
in  water-engineering,  who  did  a  great  deal  for  the 
Tiber  and  the  beautiful  lake  of  Piediluco  behind 
Terni),  and  his  cousin  Maderna,  papal  architect 


230 


SIXTINE  ROME 


after  him,  as  if  they  were  designated  by  himself 
as  his  regular  successors. 

But  against  him,  or  at  least  against  this  smooth 
history  of  events,  we  have  the  words  of  Bellori, 
that  the  appointment  as  general  architect  was 
repealed,  bad  reports  having  been  made  against 
him,  saying  that  he  had  embezzled  the  sums  put  in 
his  care  during  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V.  This  storm 
cannot  have  broken  so  soon  over  his  thoughtful 
head.  According  to  a  notary's  act  "the  former 
architect  of  Sixtus  V  "  was  still  in  Rome  in  1594. 

He  moved  from  Rome  in  1596,  as  is  shown 
by  a  permit  to  export  some  art  objects  from  Rome 
to  Naples.  Amongst  those,  as  a  relic  of  the 
closed  past,  "  a  bronze  obelisk  a  full  arm  in 
length  " ! 

In  the  year  1596  he  designed  the  catafalque  for 
the  Requiem  mass,  in  Naples,  for  Philip  II,  King 
of  Spain,  in  which  the  dome  effect  was  repeated. 
The  change  in  his  career  may  have  been  marked 
with  funereal  monuments,  but  he  soon  turned  to 
more  cheerful  tasks. 

When  printing  the  supplement  of  his  book  in 
1603,  he  was  able  to  enumerate  a  large  list  of  monu- 
ments in  Southern  Italy,  and  especially  in  Naples. 
He  lived  down  his  difficulties,  and  does  not  at  all 
seem  to  have  considered  his  reputation  ruined  in 
Rome,  as  I  can  prove  by  a  fact  unknown  to  his 
biographers,  even  to  de  Hiibner.  I  discovered  it 
in  Grimaldi's  manuscript  of  St.  Peter's,  where 


The  architect's  tomb 


DOMENICO  FONT  ANA-  231 


Fontana  is  mentioned  among  the  architects  offer- 
ing their  services  for  the  work  that  was  to  fall 
to  Carlo  Maderna. 

In  Naples  some  of  the  most  prominent  buildings 
are  Fontana's :  the  King's  palace,  the  fountain  of 
Neptune,  and  others.  He  continued  to  do  for 
Naples  what  he  had  done  for  Rome. 

After  his  marriage,  he  continued  to  live  in 
Naples  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  the  year 
1607 ;  he  left  behind  him  some  young  children. 
They  did  not  forget  their  father's  fame ;  one, 
indeed,  followed  in  his  footsteps.  Julius  Caesar  (a 
Roman  name !)  Fontana  was  also  an  architect. 

In  1627  a  monument  was  erected  by  him  to  his 
father's  memory  in  Naples. 

My  readers  when  passing  there  might  give  a 
glance  to  the  church  of  Sant'  Anna  dei  Lombardi, 
in  the  centre  of  the  city,  in  the  outside  portal,  just 
for  the  sake  of  our  weighty  obelisk  and  Fontana, 
whom  we  now  leave.    There  he  is  : — 

"  Summus  Romae  Architectus  " 

again  with  the  instruments  of  his  work,  with  his 
armoury  of  obelisk  and  fountains,  and  the  chain 
around  his  neck,  and  there  are  real  Sixtine  lions 
and  .  .  . 

"Magna  Molitus  Ma.tora  Potuit." 


V 


THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE 
SEPTIZONIUM 

TT  is  only  logical  that  the  era  of  any  ruler  who 
J-  transformed  Rome  should  mean  "debt  and 
credit"  to  archaeology. 

The  active  archaeologist  and  topographist  are 
always  on  the  alert  for  occasions  when  some  par- 
ticle of  old  Rome  is  laid  bare.  A  close  survey 
is  made  by  official  and  amateur  inspectors,  when- 
ever a  corner  is  lifted  of  the  large  sheet  of  buildings 
covering  the  venerable  body  of  Roma  Antica.  It 
often  causes  competition ;  and  sometimes  we  see 
the  heroes  of  science  engaged  in  a  familiar 
struggle  over  the  spolia  opima  of  an  excava- 
tion. 

As  a  rule  the  foreigner  is  hardly  aware  of 
the  existence  of  an  intellectual  circle  in  Rome, 
constantly  on  the  look-out  for  new  data  on 
archaeology  and  topography,  which  each  inter- 
ference with  the  soil  is  apt  to  bring  forward. 
He  does  not  know  that  when  some  important 
result  has  become  known  to  the  general  public 
it  has  already  lost  its  fresh  interest  for  the  body- 

232 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  233 

guards  of  antiquity.  They  are  seeking  in  the 
meantime  for  the  next  disclosure ;  perhaps  a  mere 
fragment,  attaining  ephemeral  notoriety,  but,  on 
the  battlefield  of  controversy,  a  very  Patrocles' 
corpse. 

The  public,  in  the  widest  sense,  expect  more 
from  excavations  than  they  are  capable  of  yielding. 
If  a  cool-minded  archaeologist  would  sit  down  and 
draw  for  that  same  public  a  scheme  of  what  may 
eventually  be  found,  and  the  much  greater  amount 
of  what  certainly  is  lost  for  ever,  he  would  meet 
with  very  little  gratitude  for  his  conscientious 
task.  Fortunately,  the  point  of  view  of  the 
archaeologist  and  that  of  the  general  public  offer 
a  great  contrast.  While  the  public  expects  table- 
silver  with  the  monogram  of  Cajus  Julius  Caesar, 
the  archaeologist  is  made  happy  by  a  piece  of 
leaden  water-pipe. 

Another  cruel  but  very  rare  truth  must  be 
stated ;  it  is  only  exceptionally  that  excavations 
made  with  a  determined  purpose  are  able  to 
excite  public  curiosity.  Science  counts,  on  the 
contrary,  mostly  on  the  patient  collecting  of  the 
material  brought  forth  occasionally.  In  acting 
so,  it  only  follows  an  old  and  recognised  track. 
The  enthusiasts  who  turn  away  disappointed  will 
return  when  they  understand  the  conditions 
better. 

As  we  do  not  expect  to  find  a  group  of  the 
Laocoon  or  the  Aldobrandini  fresco  every  century, 


234 


SIXTINE  ROME 


even  a  printed  tile  acquires  some  importance. 
According  to  its  inscription,  a  scholar's  theory 
stands  or  falls.  A  villa  foundation  emerges  from 
the  ocean  of  things  unknown,  and  a  long-fought 
discussion  is  ended. 

A  new  street  or  square  is  made.  At  once  the 
emotion  of  the  whole  guard  awakens.  The  map  is 
studied  anew;  portfolios  with  older  plans  and 
boxes  with  almost  forgotten  notes  are  opened. 
While  the  grandees  of  Spain  discuss  and  protest, 
there  is  an  opening  for  some  ardent  and  ingenious 
Columbus. 

The  best  proofs  of  the  passionate  interest  those 
studies  can  awaken  are  their  worst  consequences, 
their  falsifications — such  as  a  few  marble  inscrip- 
tions in  the  museum  of  Naples,  fabricated  by  Pirro 
Ligorio  in  the  XVIth  century. 

Under  the  present  regime  for  protecting 
antiquities,  Sixtus  could  never  have  built  his  Rome ; 
at  least  his  architects  would  have  been  limited 
to  a  cipher  in  the  choice  of  materials  which  they 
were  then  allowed  to  select  unhindered. 

The  first  great  builder  and  reformer  of  the  city 
before  Pope  Peretti  was  another  Sixtus,  the  fourth 
of  this  name.  A  bridge,  the  Ponte  Sisto,  was 
called  after  him,  and  also  a  street,  naturally  called 
the  Via  Sistina  (now  Borgo  Sant'  Angelo),  which 
is  described  by  Volaterranus,  the  Roman  diarist  of 
his  time,  as  a  street  paved  and  named  by  papal 
prescription  (in  the  great  new  edition  of  the  Rerum 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  235 

Italicarum  Scriptores,  1904,  fasc.  26-7,  p.  29). 
The  name  Via  Sistina  now  means  quite  a  different 
street,  as  every  visitor  to  Rome  knows.  The 
internal  changes  of  Roman  street-names  per- 
plex many  who  read  the  descriptions  of  former 
centuries.  The  present  Via  Leonina,  Via  Paolina, 
Via  Alessandrina  have  nothing  but  their  names  in 
common  with  the  streets  formerly  so  called,  and 
now  known  as :  Via  Ripetta,  Via  del  Babuino, 
and  Borgo  Nuovo.  The  works  of  Sixtus  IV  ex- 
tend further  than  the  Sixtine  Chapel,  restorations 
of  several  churches,  and  the  care  of  important 
thoroughfares  for  the  traffic  winding  to  the 
Vatican.  Still  his  share  in  the  external  lines  of 
Rome  is  so  much  smaller  than  that  of  Sixtus  V 
that  the  name  of  "  Sixtine  Rome  "  is  only  suitable 
in  connection  with  the  latter. 

The  reigns  of  those  two  Sixtus  have  many  points 
of  resemblance  connecting  them  :  Sixtus  IV  in  the 
bloom  of  the  Renaissance,  and  Sixtus  V  after  its 
definite  end.  While  the  Renaissance  was  a  gar- 
den, Sixtus  IV  handled  the  plough  for  future 
harvests  in  the  acre  of  practical  life.  The  beauti- 
ful scene  of  Sixtus  IV  receiving  Platina  is  now 
a  museum  object  in  the  Vatican  Pinacoteca,  while 
the  somewhat  dry  painting  of  Pietro  Facchetti  still 
looks  down  on  the  incessant  activity  of  the  library. 
The  Biblioteca,  under  the  care  of  Platina,  holds  an 
historical  place  in  the  larger  collection  still  in  the 
building  of  Sixtus  V. 


236 


SIXTINE  ROME 


In  relation  to  Ancient  Rome,  Sixtus  IV  sur- 
passes the  last  Pope  of  this  name,  and  will  always 
be  noted  as  the  founder  of  the  Capitoline 
Museum. 

The  reign  of  Sixtus  V  is  marred  by  the  razing 
of  the  Septizonium. 

It  was  built  by  Septimus  Severus,  a  grandiose 
as  well  as  a  solid  decorative  prospect  on  the  corner 
of  the  Palatine  "meeting  the  eye  of  those  who 
returned  from  Africa  by  the  Appian  Way."  In 
the  IVth  and  Vth  centuries  it  is  mentioned  in  de- 
scriptions of  Rome,  and  drawn  for  the  first  time  on 
the  "  Forma  Urbis,"  the  magnificent  Roman  map 
of  the  IIIrd  century  now  in  the  courtyard  of  the 
Palazzo  dei  Conservatori  on  the  Capitoline  hill. 
Again,  it  is  referred  to  in  the  Itinerarium  Einsid- 
lense  in  the  VIIIth  century,  and  was  surely  noted 
on  the  lost  map,  for  which  this  Itinerarium  was 
the  index.  (The  reconstruction  of  this  map  is  a 
tour  de  force  such  as  only  a  scholar  cf  Hiilsen's 
value  could  undertake  ;  see  his  La  pianta  di  Roma 
deir  Anonimo  Einsidlense,  1907.) 

From  the  Itinerarium  Einsidlense,  which  has 
engrossed  de  Rossi,  Lanciani  and  Hiilsen,  we  pass 
to  another  monumental  publication  mentioning 
this  ruin,  the  Liber  Fontificalis  edited  by  Monsig- 
nor  Duchesne,  the  present  director  of  the  French 
School  in  Rome.  About  the  year  800  a  Christian 
church,  Santa  Lucia  in  Septizonio,  nestled  in  this 
pagan  construction.    Where  no  church  was  con- 


\ 


Septizonium  with  medieval  elements. 

(  Fro  in  Heemskei  k"s  drawing.) 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  237 


structed  in  or  near  ancient  buildings  the  latter  often 
served  other  purposes ;  for  instance,  the  Arch  of 
Constantine  was  utilised  as  a  fortress.  The  Septi- 
zonium  did  not  escape  this  fate,  and  about  or 
around  the  year  1000  it  was  fortified  and  accord- 
ingly besieged.  In  the  XIIth  century  a  Pope  fled 
there  for  shelter ;  an  anti-pope  was  imprisoned 
there,  and  the  age  of  San  eta  Lucia  in  Septizonio 
made  it  worthy  to  be  a  Cardinal's  titular  church. 
One  of  these  Cardinals,  Brancaleone,  was  once 
a  prisoner  there ! 

The  last  time  when  it  played  an  important  part 
was  at  the  time  of  the  entrance  into  Rome  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V  in  1536.  The  solemn 
manner  of  his  arrival  occupied  the  mind  and  talents 
of  many  Italian  and  some  foreign  artists.  It  was 
arranged  that  the  Emperor  should  come  in  after  a 
night's  lodging  in  the  monastery  of  San  Paolo 
Fuori,  and  reach  San  Sebastiano  by  the  still  exist- 
ing Via  delle  Sette  Chiese,  with  its  marvellous 
views  of  Rome.  Then,  at  the  first  sharp  turn  of 
the  Via  Appia,  inside  the  wall,  where  the  wide 
road  passed  straight  through  vineyards,  he  could 
see  on  the  one  hand  the  "  Settesolie,"  with  the 
ancient  buildings  of  "  Palazzo  Maggiore "  (the 
Palatine),  and  on  the  other  the  aqueducts  and 
ruins  of  the  Celius  ;  before  him  the  Arch  of  Con- 
stantine !  This  notable  pageant  is  recorded  on  the 
frescoed  walls  of  the  castle  of  Caprarola. 

We  must  thank  the  learned  Stevenson  for 


238 


SIXTINE  ROME 


some  abundant  information  about  the  last  stage 
of  the  already  ruined  building  ;  he  enumerates 
dates  and  facts  from  the  volumes  of  the  Vatican 
Library  and  archives,  with  the  cost  of  its  destruc- 
tion. 

Here  it  is  shown  how  a  pontificate  of  great 
constructive  activity  results  in  damage  to  archae- 
ology. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that,  long  before  Sixtus' 
time,  it  was  the  custom  to  take  from  ancient  ruins 
materials,  such  as  blocks  of  ordinary  stone, 
columns,  carved  marbles,  etc.,  for  the  building 
and  decoration  of  new  edifices. 

Sixtus'  architect,  Fontana,  only  followed  the 
usual  course  when  he  laid  his  hand  on  the 
Septizonium,  a  quarry  so  near  to  the  field  of  his 
activity ! 

The  Septizonium  was  indeed  treated  like  an 
ordinary  quarry,  a  very  typical  incident  in  one  of 
the  darkest  pages  in  the  history  of  excavations. 

Part  of  the  ancient  building  was  absorbed  in 
the  new  wing  of  the  Vatican,  part  in  the  base- 
ment of  the  obelisk  of  Piazza  del  Popolo,  in  the 
restoration  of  Marcus  Aurelius'  column,  and  in 
the  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  the  stair- 
case leading  down  to  the  Cappella  del  Presepio, 
the  festoons  of  Sixtus  V's  tomb,  and  the  bas-relief 
with  the  coronation  of  Pius  V.  "  Peperino " 
from  this  quarry  found  a  new  repository  in  a 
staircase  and  facade  of  the  Lateran  Palace,  as 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  239 

well  as  in  the  public  washing-place  for  poor 
women,  made  by  Sixtus  near  the  church  of  Santa 
Susanna. 

Parts  of  the  Septizonium  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  private  individuals ;  we  must  also  remem- 
ber that  some  were  employed  to  the  profit  of 
the  city's  aesthetics.  A  note  by  Sixtus  V  on  this 
subject,  published  by  Bertolotti,  reads  as  follows  : 
"  Cavaliere  Domenico  Fontana,  our  architect : 
you  will  consign  to  the  Conservatori  and  other 
representatives  of  the  people  of  Rome  two  of 
the  columns,  which  are  taken  from  the  old  palace 
at  St.  John  in  Lateran,  after  your  own  choice, 
and  you  will  also  give  them  the  metal  ball,  which 
was  on  the  top  of  the  obelisk  of  the  Vatican  ; 
these  objects  we  give  them,  to  place  on  the 
Capitolium  at  their  convenience.  And  also  you 
will  consign  to  Mutio  Mattei  five  pieces  of 
peperino,  which  we  present  to  him  to  use  in  his 
fountains  in  Strada  Felice." 

This  document  was  dated  May  23,  1589,  and 
signed  "  Sisto  V  P.P."  The  palace  of  Mutio 
Mattei  is  now  known  as  Palazzo  del  Drago ;  it 
has  undergone  changes,  and  been  called,  in 
chronological  order :  Mattei  (built  by  Fontana), 
Massimo,  Albano,  del  Drago.  The  "  Quattro 
Fontane  "  do  not  need  any  explanation. 

Domenico  Fontana  is  circumspect  in  relating 
his  deeds   of   destruction.    "  Material  provided 


240 


SIXTINE  ROME 


by  the  Pope "  does  not  appear  so  freely  in  his 
book  as  it  did  in  his  buildings.  On  one  page, 
where  he  speaks  about  the  Baths  of  Diocletian, 
his  words  are  very  colourless  ;  we  understand  this 
apathy  when  we  read  elsewhere  that  94,000  cubic 
metres  of  their  archaeological  material  were  used  by 
Fontana.  In  general  he  avoids  a  reference  to  this 
delicate  question.  Anyhow,  he  did  not  feel  it  a 
duty,  which  nobody  could  have  fulfilled  better 
than  himself,  to  leave  any  other  report  of  the 
Septizonium's  destruction  than  an  ordinary  busi- 
ness note.  An  official  description,  in  the  style 
of  Grimaldi's  manuscript  about  St.  Peter's,  is 
lacking. 

Fortunately  we  can  fill  out  some  missing  links 
from  the  pleasant  chain  of  memoirs  left  us  by 
Flaminio  Vacca  (a  colleague  of  Fontana  in  the 
art  of  handling  stone),  regarding  several  ancient 
monuments  damaged  or  destroyed  in  the  days  of 
Sixtus  V. 

Vacca  had  his  part  in  Sixtine  buildings  in  the 
chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  and  at  the  foun- 
tain of  Moses,  and  must  have  been  an  artist  of 
remarkable  talent.  His  chief  occupation  was  the 
restoration  of  antique  statues,  a  work  which  was, 
as  a  rule,  not  considered  beneath  the  dignity  of  a 
sculptor.  Even  Benvenuto  Cellini  practised  it, 
accompanying  it  with  a  boastful  protestation  in 
his  own  diverting  manner.  He  called  the  66  restora- 
tors"  by  profession  "  ciabattini "  (cobblers),  but 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  241 

nevertheless  he  stepped  into  their  calling  when  the 
opportunity  offered.  His  mortal  enemy,  Baccio 
Bandinelli,  worked  in  the  same  way,  restoring  the 
Laocoon.  Before  this,  another  Tuscan  artist, 
Verocchio,  had  made  arms  and  legs  for  a  statue 
in  the  Medici  collection.  How  the  art  of  re- 
storing and  of  sculpture  could  go  side  by  side  is 
told  by  Vasari  in  the  life  of  the  sculptor-monk, 
Giovanni  Montorsoli.  Montorsoli,  after  a  retreat  in 
Camaldoli,  where  he  used  his  leisure  hours  in  carv- 
ing cane-heads  for  the  monks,  came  to  Rome,  called 
by  Michelangelo,  who  had  recommended  him  to 
Pope  Clemens  VII  (1523-1534).  "  Having  arrived 
in  Rome,  he  retired  to  the  rooms  in  the  Belvedere 
which  were  assigned  to  him  by  the  Pope  for  his 
abode  and  workroom,  and  made  a  missing  left  arm 
for  the  Apollo  and  a  right  one  for  the  Laocoon,  both 
of  which  statues  are  placed  there,  also  proposing 
to  restore  the  Hercules.  The  Pope  went  nearly 
every  morning  to  the  Belvedere  for  a  walk  and  to 
read  his  breviary.  The  monk  portrayed  him  in 
marble  so  cleverly  that  his  work  was  much  praised, 
and  the  Pope  conceived  a  great  affection  for 
him.  .  .  ." 

In  the  XVIIth  century,  the  sculptor  Francesco 
Duquesnoy  also  made  himself  a  great  name 
by  restoring  statues  with  such  ability  and  perfec- 
tion that  people  were  left  wondering  where  the 
modern  pieces  were  added.  This  kind  of  work 
must  often  have  aided  sculptors  in  their  careers, 

R 


242  SIXTINE  ROME 


by  supplying  them  with  funds  for  costly  inde- 
pendent works  of  art,  as  is  told  about  Alessandro 
Algardi. 

Flaminio  Vacca  outstripped  all  those  excellent 
men  on  one  point :  he  had  such  profound  interest 
in  his  profession,  that  he  took  the  trouble  to  write 
down  all  interesting  excavations  and  other  events 
of  archaeological  significance. 

In  a  modest  way,  he  has  his  place  amongst  the 
numerous  Italian  artists  who  have  left  books 
about  their  profession,  their  lives,  and  their  art. 
His  modesty  is  mentioned  in  a  peculiar  form 
on  his  tombstone  in  the  Pantheon:  "Flaminius 
Vacca,  Roman  sculptor,  who,  in  his  works,  never 
satisfied  himself." 

His  interest  in  archaeology  had,  it  must  be 
owned,  sometimes  a  commercial  side.  He  does 
not  keep  that  a  secret,  but  remarks  on  it  him- 
self. 

The  Memorie  di  Flaminio  Vacca — published  as 
a  supplement  to  the  Roma  Antica  of  Nardini — are 
dated  Rome,  1594.  This  is  their  final  term,  but 
they  embrace  a  long  period,  recalling  to  mind  even 
the  days  of  his  father.  They  are  spiced  with 
fragrant  anecdotes.  Vacca  was  a  good  talker. 
Many  times,  when  he  opens  with  his  Mi  ricordo, 
he  remembers  delicious  incidents  of  his  life  in  con- 
nection with  marble  and  travertine  old  and  new. 
Then  there  are  many  short  chapters,  imbued  with 
woeful  tales  of  destructions,  such  as  that  of  the 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  243 

Septizonium,  only  usually  on  a  smaller  scale. 
New  constructions  and  discoveries  of  ancient  re- 
mains go  hand-in-hand  in  his  notes,  as  when  he 
mentions  some  traces  of  the  benches  of  the  Stadium 
of  Domitianus — half  of  it  now  Piazza  Navona,  still 
indicated  in  the  semicircle  of  houses  at  the  end — 
under  a  house  near  Piazza  Madama  ;  or  discoveries 
at  Quattro  Fontane.  On  Piazza  Colonna,  when 
digging  the  foundations  of  a  house,  an  old 
pavement  of  marble  was  found.  Vacca  sup- 
poses that  this  was  the  ancient  pavement  of  the 
square. 

Many  incidents  of  Vacca's  times  bring  home  to 
us  ordinary  facts  of  the  present. 

Then,  as  now,  the  exigencies  of  agriculture  found 
an  obstacle  in  the  bulky  masses  of  ancient  struc- 
ture. The  owner  of  a  plot  of  ground  having 
decided  to  utilise  his  property,  one  of  his  first 
acts  is  the  removal  of  the  impediment.  The 
fate  of  antique  remnants  accidentally  discovered 
depends,  therefore,  on  the  character  and  culture  of 
this  man  and  on  outside  circumstances. 

Some  of  the  men  whom  Vacca  refers  to  can  for 
ever  be  quoted  as  models  of  exploratory  courage. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  excavator  who  lowered 
himself  down  into  a  pit  in  the  Campagna,  a  mile 
beyond  Monte  del  Grano  (the  Monte  del  Grano  is 
just  outside  Porta  Furba).  Or  another,  a  diver  by 
profession,  who,  at  the  bottom  of  the  Tiber,  found 
a  headless  Consul  holding  some  papers  in  his  hand 


244 


SIXTINE  ROME 


— an  experience  which  surpasses  the  terrors  of 
imagination. 

For  the  moment,  a  short  way  to  locate  and  to 
date  Vacca's  Memorie  is  to  employ  the  well-known 
"Forma  Urbis,"  the  atlas  in  which  modern  and 
ancient  Rome,  with  fragments  now  in  the  Capito- 
line  Museum,  are  included  together.  It  gives  at 
the  same  time  the  principal  excavations  and  topo- 
graphical discoveries  for  Sixtine  Rome.  Nobody 
will  regret  the  hours  spent  with  those  splendid 
maps  which  enclose  the  knowledge  of  whole  libra- 
ries. Reference  to  Vacca's  memoirs  yields  much 
pleasure.  You  will  find  Vacca's  name  mentioned 
several  times  on  these  maps  at  the  Marmorata  and 
at  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Tiber,  in  the  Via 
Aurelia  Antica  and  the  Via  Merulana,  etc. 

Discoveries  of  antique  remains  are  mentioned 
on  this  map  at  San  Giovanni  Decollato  (1588) ; 
on  the  road  behind  the  Arch  of  Constantine  those 
of  Matteo  da  Castello,  the  unhappy  architect  who 
endeavoured  to  bring  the  Acqua  Felice  to  Rome ; 
on  the  Monte  Calvarello,  near  the  Porta  San 
Sebastiano  (1588)  and  before  San  Clemente — 
where  the  side  door  still  shows  some  elements 
of  the  Sixtine  coat  of  arms — and  between  this 
church  and  St.  John  in  Lateran. 

Sixtus  made  this  section  of  the  road,  and  at  the 
same  time  dealt  a  deadly  blow  to  the  legend  of 
the  "  Papessa  Giovanna  "  (the  woman  Pope). 

The  legend  of  "  Papessa  Giovanna  "  places  her 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  245 


as  a  successor  to  Leo  IV,  who  died  in  855.  The 
dramatic  end  of  her  life,  which  has  kept  the  story- 
tellers busy  from  Boccaccio  to  the  popular  poet 
Gioacchino  Belli  (an  article  of  M.  Besso  in  the 
Rivista  di  Roma,  1907,  dwells  on  her  fame  in 
literature),  is  said  to  have  happened  in  the  street 
between  San  Clemente  and  San  Giovanni,  during 
the  possesso,  the  solemn  occupation  of  the  Lateran, 
reached  after  a  long  procession  from  St.  Peter's. 
Baronius,  the  great  ecclesiastical  writer  of  Sixtus' 
times,  and  even  later,  took  up  the  question  from 
the  historical  side,  followed  in  the  XIXth  cen- 
tury by  Dollinger,  who  has  uprooted  this,  as  well 
as  other  Papstfabeln  des  Mittelalters  (mediaeval 
fables  about  the  Popes). 

The  locality  of  this  startling  occurrence  is  due 
to  a  reason  of  true  folkloristic  character.  Often  a 
legend  starts  from  simple  factors,  which  at  once 
rouse  a  question  in  the  popular  mind.  In  the 
possesso  the  Pope  and  his  procession,  instead  of 
going  straight  from  the  Coliseum  to  St.  John  in 
Lateran,  turned  off  at  San  Clemente  towards  SS. 
Coronati,  and  from  there  led  towards  his  basilica 
San  Giovanni  in  Laterano.  This  sudden  turn  in 
the  road  must  have  been  caused  by  its  condition, 
which  probably  did  not  allow  the  continuance  of  a 
straight  line.  Once  the  itinerary  was  established, 
even  an  improvement  of  the  street's  condition 
could  not  easily  modify  the  accepted  custom. 
The  conservatism,  which  is  usual  in  rites  and 


246 


SIXTINE  ROME 


ceremonies,  guarantees  this  version.  But  the 
crowds  gathered  for  the  impressive  possesso 
centuries  after  the  death  of  Leo  IV,  observing 
with  intense  emotion  the  election  of  a  Pope  and 
his  first  official  action,  wanted  an  explanation,  and 
began  searching  for  the  obstacle  which  the  new 
pontiff  provided  for  their  imagination  in  his  Via 
Sacra. 

It  is  supposed  that  an  innocent  statue,  men- 
tioned in  the  neighbourhood  of  San  Clemente  as 
early  as  1283,  originated  this  trouble. 

Histories  told  about  the  "  Boy  with  the  Thorn  " 
(the  "  Fedele,"  now  in  the  Capitoline  Museum), 
"  Madama  Lucrezia,"  the  "  Abbate  Luigi,"  44  Mar- 
forio,"  and  "  Pasquino  "  prove  how  various  and 
complicated  legends  arise  from  statues  in  public 
places.  Who  knows  what  quaint  lore  will 
come  from  the  Legislators  before  the  new  Palace 
of  Justice  ?  Already  the  Roman  popolani  with 
their  vivid  fancy  seek  for  some  interpretation  of 
their  gestures  and  attitudes.  In  a  few  generations 
the  jests  of  to-day  will  form  a  chapter  in  the 
popular  literature  of  Rome. 

The  whole  story  of  the  "Papessa  Giovanna" 
may  have  come  from  some  part  of  a  street,  which 
did  not  belong  to  the  possesso  or  the  statue 
located  there.  We  are  sure  of  the  fact  that 
Sixtus  rendered  the  road  practicable,  and  took 
away  the  obstacle,  whilst  he  abolished  other  old 
customs  of  the  possesso. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  247 

A  writer  of  Roman  history,  Tomassetti,  di- 
verging from  the  supposition  that  Sixtus  may 
have  destroyed  the  inscription  (consisting  in 
P.P.P.P.P.P.),  but  not  the  statue,  has  hunted 
in  Roman  collections  and  believes  to  have  found 
it  in  a  "Juno  with  the  young  Hercules "  in  the 
Museo  Chiaramonti  in  the  Vatican  (in  Amelung's 
Catalogue,  Reproduction  48). 

The  facts  adduced  by  Tomassetti  in  his  article 
— in  the  Bollettino  della  Commissione  Archeologica 
Communale,  1907 — that  one  of  Sixtus'  near  suc- 
cessors, Clemens  VIII,  ordered  away  the  effigy  (!) 
of  this  legendary  woman,  Agnese,  Giliberta,  or 
Giovanna,  born  in  England,  educated  in  Athens, 
etc.  etc.,  from  the  series  of  the  Popes  in  the 
cathedral  of  Siena,  corroborate  his  supposition. 

But  to  accept  the  statue  in  the  Vatican,  so  well 
preserved  after  an  exposure  of  centuries  in  the 
desert,  sufficient  foundation  seems  to  be  lacking. 

Until  the  regular  history  of  the  excavations 
reaches  the  period  of  the  reign  of  Sixtus  V,  we 
are  without  authoritative  sanction  on  this  subject. 

The  connection  between  Sixtine  works  of  trans- 
formation and  archaeological  discoveries  is  indicated 
on  the  pages  of  the  "  Forma  Urbis,"  which  contain 
the  surroundings  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  dated 
and  sometimes  further  illustrated  by  the  Memoirs 
of  Vacca.  I  take  a  few  examples  :  While  some 
excavations  were  taking  place  at  SS.  Pietro  e 
Marcellino  in  the  Via  Merulana,  strong  walls  were 


248 


SIXTINE  ROME 


found  resting  on  blocks  of  travertine.  Vacca 
(Mem.  24)  infers  that  it  was  a  "  Castrum  Aquae," 
a  reservoir,  with  an  aqueduct  going  towards  the 
Coliseum.  Its  stone  was  used  in  Sixtine  buildings. 
Inside  they  also  found  statues,  one  of  which  was 
bought  by  Cardinal  Alessandro  Montalto.  Ac- 
cording to  the  "Forma  Urbis"  this  Cardinal 
made,  in  1588,  some  excavations  of  his  own 
before  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo.  In  that  same 
interesting  corner  of  Rome,  and  in  the  same  year, 
more  excavations  are  mentioned  in  the  Via  di  San 
Gregorio.  As  to  the  new  streets,  we  find,  for 
instance:  "Great  excavations  by  Sixtus  V,  1587," 
in  the  Via  Panisperna,  with  a  derivation  in  the 
present  Via  Balbo.  As  an  instance  of  excavations 
in  relation  to  new  buildings,  we  have  to  note  those 
at  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie,  built  in  1588  by 
a  hermit  from  Calabria  for  an  image  of  the 
Madonna,  brought  from  Constantinople  to  that 
spot  at  the  foot  of  the  Vatican. 

Sixtus  V  surely  followed  with  interest  the 
proceedings  for  the  protection  and  to  the  damage  of 
archaeology.  We  have  heard  about  his  walks  with 
Fulvio  Orsini,  and,  amongst  the  books  of  his 
private  library,  we  find  one  by  Marlianus  about 
Roman  antiquities.  The  author,  a  remarkable 
person,  pursued  his  studies  between  1534  and 
1544.  He  dealt  largely  in  antiques,  a  path  never 
apt  to  help  the  career  of  an  archaeologist,  and  in 
his  case  not  a  source  of  comfort,  as  he  lived  in 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  249 

continuous  fright  of  being  robbed.  His  work  has 
had  the  honour  of  a  French  edition  (in  Lyons) 
under  the  supervision  of  the  great  French  writer 
Rabelais,  who  had  been  in  Rome  in  1534.  One 
of  Marlianus'  successors  in  our  days  says  about 
him  that  "he  had  a  modern  intuition  for  topo- 
graphy, and  a  remarkable  talent  for  expressing 
much  in  a  few  words,"  quoting  his  comparison  of 
the  Monte  Testaccio  with  a  cucumber ! 

An  edition  of  Marlianus'  topography  came  out 
in  Rome  in  1584,  just  before  the  accession  of 
Sixtus  V,  printed  by  Antonio  Blado  in  Campo 
de'  Fiori.  It  is  pleasant  to  handle  this  book, 
living  in  thought  in  Sixtine  times,  and  realising 
that,  though  a  repetition,  it  must  have  been 
a  novelty  at  that  time.  Many  probably  walked 
around  with  a  copy  of  the  book  in  their  pockets, 
to  see  what  Fontana  and  his  Vandals  would 
destroy  next.  I  should  not  wonder  if,  in  some 
library,  a  copy  might  be  found  with  handwritten 
notes  mentioning  the  destructions  one  after  the 
other.  Who  knows  if,  on  the  contrary,  Fontana 
did  not  consult  it  as  an  inventory  of  "archaeo- 
logical material "  ?  It  must  have  shocked  him 
when  he  came  to  the  page  where  Marlianus 
begins  :  "  We  are  sitting  in  the  Pope's  library  ..." 
The  library  had  changed  in  the  meantime,  or  at 
least  Fontana  guessed  that  the  proposition  would 
be  brought  forward.  But  also  times  had  changed, 
and  we  might  ask  if,  in  the  new  building,  learned 


250 


SIXTINE  ROME 


men  would  sit  so  quietly  when  subjects  of 
Roman  topography  were  brought  forward  ?  A 
certain  restraint  must  have  made  them  change 
their  theme ! 

Doubtless  another,  much  smaller,  book  about 
Roman  antiquities  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Pope.  It  was  dedicated  to  him  and  written  by  a 
Frenchman,  Louis  de  Montoise  (Demontiosius), 
printed  in  1585  in  Rome,  at  the  very  beginning 
of  the  pontificate,  according  to  the  date  of  the 
' 6  permit  to  print  "  :  July,  1585  (in  an  index  of  the 
Vatican  Archives).  He  gave  his  book  a  nice  short 
title :  Gallus  Romce  hospes  (a  Frenchman,  the 
guest  of  Rome).  But  his  concise  style  would 
have  disgusted  musty  bookworms,  so,  for  their 
benefit,  he  explained  almost  in  the  same  breath 
that  it  was  a  book  "in  which  many  old  monu- 
ments are  explained  and  partly  given  back  their 
original  form." 

The  copy  which  I  admired  in  its  integrity  and 
splendid  print  not  only  shows  the  Sixtine  coat 
of  arms  inside,  but  also  in  gold,  printed  on  the 
binding  of  the  cover.  Perhaps  it  was  de  Mon- 
toise's  copy,  which  he  himself  offered  to  the  new 
sovereign,  he  being  a  man  of  distinction,  passing 
his  time  as  "  a  guest  of  Rome  "  in  the  house  of  a 
Cardinal. 

Instinctively,  I  sought  along  the  pages  for  the 
Septizonium,  tracing  perhaps  the  fingers  of  Sixtus 
V,  and  never  feeling  so  near  to  the  far  past,  or  to 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  251 


the  great  Pope,  resting  since  centuries  in  his 
mausoleum  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore. 

Perhaps  the  death-sentence  of  the  Septizonium 
is  contained  here,  where  the  author  says  that  "  the 
populace  inscribed  the  Septizonium  to  Virgil,  like 
most  things  which  pass  their  understanding."  This 
memorandum,  put  into  the  jaws  of  the  terrible 
Lion  of  Montalto,  could  not  miss  its  effect. 

When  the  sentence  had  been  executed  in  a 
peremptory  form,  Sixtus  went  in  person  to  see 
that  the  "antiquities"  were  levelled  to  the 
ground. 

The  man  who  described  the  event  of  the  day, 
September  4th,  1588,  adds  that  "the  destruction 
of  the  Septizonium  caused  general  displeasure,  as 
it  was  such  a  model  of  architecture  that  the 
talented  and  very  famous  architect,  Bramante, 
when  he  was  in  Rome,  said  that  he  had  not 
seen  anything  there  from  which  the  said  art 
could  take  more  exquisite  examples  than  from 
the  Coliseum  and  from  these  Settezonie." 

Nevertheless  the  public  will  did  not  possess 
enough  force  to  change  the  Pope's  decision.  The 
general  discontent  was  a  mere  circumstance. 

Revenge  on  Sixtus'  destruction  was  to  come 
much  later,  in  the  XIXth  century,  with  a  kind 
of  retaliation,  when  other  public  works  for 
the  new  quarters  called  for  the  destruction  of 
his  own  villa  between  1873  and  1888.  The 
only  reminders  are  a  few  cypresses  in  the  garden 


252 


SIXTINE  ROME 


of  the  Collegio  Massimo,  near  the  central  railway 
station,  and  some  frescoes,  taken  from  the  walls 
of  the  former  Villa  Peretti  and  preserved  in  a 
room  of  the  College. 

We  have  now  heard  of  one  destruction  after 
another,  but  we  have  also  quoted  several  instances 
where  Rome  did  not  welcome  them. 

Real  love  for  ancient  buildings  in  the  time  of 
Sixtus  V  can  be  deduced  from  a  quantity  of  facts 
which  were  universal  in  the  second  half  of  the 
XVIth  century. 

A  regular  exposition  of  these  points  would 
require  a  volume  apart,  treating  of  the  Roman 
collections  of  that  period. 

Just  a  walk  through  Rome  with  a  contemporary 
of  Sixtus,  who  noted  the  principal  collections, 
may  be  interesting  to  the  reader.  The  report  of 
that  walk,  a  kind  of  note-book,  is  preserved  in  the 
former  Barberini  Library  (now  in  the  Vatican). 
The  author  has  remained  anonymous.  In  the 
learned  world  he  is  known  as  "the  anonymous 
author  of  the  Barberini  MS.,"  the  latter  having 
been  published  in  the  Review  of  the  Roman 
Historical  Society,  as  already  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  chapter. 

He  starts  his  tour  of  observation  where  there 
now  is  a  sudden  turn  in  the  Via  Nazionale,  at 
the  house  of  an  antiquarian,  who  glorified  his 
profession  in  a  long  inscription  on  the  facade. 
(This  advertisement  in    more  or  less  literary 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  253 

form  dated  from  the  year  1546 !)  He  just 
touches  upon  the  collections  of  the  Capitoline 
Museum,  but  compensates  for  his  lack  of  details 
by  a  description  of  frescoes,  destroyed  under 
Sixtus  V,  but  left  in  the  works  of  d'Arpino 
as  an  inspiration. 

He  mentions  numerous  statues  in  a  palace  of 
the  Via  Giulia,  the  Palazzo  formerly  called  Capo- 
diferro,  now  Spada.  The  name  of  their  deceased 
owner  is  preserved  in  the  actual  Via  Capodiferro. 
The  indication  of  the  author,  "  between  the 
Trinita  and  the  Piazza  del  Duca,"  means  the 
Trinita  dei  Pellegrini  and  ...  1  leave  it  to  my 
reader  to  find  this  piazza.  He  cannot  miss  it,  and 
will  gain  not  a  little  knowledge  respecting  Roman 
topography,  and  see,  meanwhile,  a  palazzo  which 
he  will  not  easily  forget. 

Then  our  XVIth-century  guide  comes  to  the 
Palazzo  Savelli  and  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus. 
The  richest  Roman  collection  after  the  Belvedere 
in  the  Vatican  was  housed  there.  In  the  same 
neighbourhood,  on  the  forbidden  square  of  the 
Palazzo  Cenci,  he  will  see  the  funereal  stone, 
recently  interpreted  for  me  by  a  real  Roman,  as 
marking  the  grave  containing  the  pet  dog  of  "la 
bella  Beatrice  Cenci "  ! 

The  treasures  of  the  Medici  villa  are  prominent 
in  his  description.  The  Cardinal  had  already 
doffed  the  purple  robe  and  married  ;  but,  as  a  Grand 
Duke,   continued   his  passion   for  the  antique, 


254 


SIXTINE  ROME 


demonstrated  by  a  long  correspondence  and 
numbers  of  permits  issued  to  export  statues  from 
Rome  to  Florence  in  his  times.  Vacca  repeats  in 
his  memoirs  the  expression :  "  the  desire  often 
satisfied  of  the  Granduca  Ferdinando."  The 
statues  in  the  villa  on  the  Pincio  were  still  repos- 
ing there  when  the  "anonimo  Barberiniano " 
made  his  tour.  He  speaks,  for  instance,  about 
the  famous  "  Man  sharpening  a  Knife,"  now  in 
Florence,  a  well-known  piece  of  realistic  sculp- 
ture. It  went  there  only  in  the  year  1677.  The 
real  removal  from  Rome  to  Florence  of  all 
portable  marbles  took  place  between  1780  and 
1788. 

The  next  collection  is  in  the  Palazzo  Cesi  in  the 
Borgo,  near  the  Inquisition.  Cardinal  Cesi  lived 
there  after  his  retirement  from  political  affairs. 
The  Anonymous  also  refers  to  the  Belvedere  in  the 
Vatican,  and  extends  his  researches  to  the  usual 
"tomb  of  Nero,"  and  much  farther  to  Oriolo 
Romano  and  Civita  Castellana — facing  the  dangers 
of  the  outskirts  of  Rome  before  Sixtus  V's 
times,  when  passing  through  that  most  lonesome, 
but,  perhaps,  most  majestic  of  all  highways  .  .  . 
the  Via  Cassia,  winding  towards  Casale  la 
Giustiniana. 

In  Rome  itself  he  could  have  done  better  with 
the  fine  villa  collections  on  the  Quirinal  hill, 
especially  the  Orti  Carpensi,  Orti  Estensi  or  Giar- 
dino  del  Cardinale  Ferrara ;  most  probably  the 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  255 

gardens  had  already  been  divided  by  the  excava- 
tions for  the  Via  Sistina,  and  their  splendid  collec- 
tions dispersed.  The  Quirinal  hill  from  that  side 
was  to  be  invaded  by  intruding  houses  and  palaces, 
and  was,  under  Sixtus  V,  certainly  more  a  field  of 
activity  for  architects  and  engineers  than  the  spot 
of  peace  and  delight  described  about  thirty  years 
before  by  Ulisse  Aldovrandi. 

Sixtus  V  deserves  a  better  fate  than  to  pass  to 
posterity  with  the  reputation  of  a  mere  destroyer. 

We  will  see  that  he  destroyed  in  order  to 
build  and  not  only  to  use  old  stones  for 
new  fabrics.  Let  us  summarise  the  monuments 
which  Sixtus  saved  from  demolition  for  their  own 
sake :  the  "  Dioscuri "  of  the  Quirinal,  and  the 
"  Trophies  of  Marius." 

On  the  Quirinal,  a  public  open-air  museum  of 
modest  proportions  stood  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages  competing  with  the  collections  of  the 
Lateran. 

Both  collections  eventually  wandered  to  the 
Capitoline  hill  as  ornaments,  or  to  be  safely  de- 
posited in  the  museum.  The  Quirinal  square — 
offering  a  gorgeous  view  of  Rome,  which  strikes 
the  visitor  at  his  first  arrival — had  been  made 
more  regular  in  its  shape  long  before  Sixtus  V. 

A  map  of  the  middle  of  the  XVIth  century 
already  roughly  outlines  its  present  form.  On 
the   top,  lying  and   standing   about,  could  be 


256 


SIXTINE  ROME 


seen  the  statuary  which  remained  stranded  there 
when  the  glory  of  the  neighbouring  Baths  of 
Constantine  and  of  the  Templum  Solis  sank  in 
the  ocean  of  time.  The  characteristic  note  of 
the  place  was  given  by  the  Dioscuri  and  their 
damaged  steeds.  The  word  "  horse,"  or  even 
"marble  horse,"  is  a  denomination  for  the  whole 
neighbourhood  of  "  Montecavallo."  Roman  barons 
and  churches  kept  it  in  their  name. 

When  Sixtus,  continuing  his  Porta  Furba  pro- 
gramme, reached  the  Montecavallo  on  the  Quirinal 
and  found  this  strange  collection,  he  must  have 
decided  at  once  to  bring  some  system  into  this 
chaos. 

First  of  all  he  wished  to  become  the  owner  of 
the  place.  In  April,  1587,  the  news  spread  in  Rome 
that  the  Camera  Apostolica  had  bought  Monte- 
cavallo from  the  Caraffa  family.  The  money  was 
sent  by  a  draft  from  two  Roman  bankers  to  the 
residence  of  Francesco  Caraffa,  duca  d'Andria,  in 
Naples,  and  accounted  for  in  the  Introitus  et 
Eocitus  of  that  year,  now  in  the  Vatican  Archives. 
On  April  16th,  1588,  it  is  recorded  that  "the 
square  on  top  of  Montecavallo  has  been  lowered  by 
order  of  the  Pope  in  order  to  bring  to  it  a  branch  of 
the  Acqua  Felice,  and  to  place  there  a  very  hand- 
some fountain,  taking  away  all  the  ugly  features 
which  disfigure  the  beautiful  place."  And  on 
July  9th,  1588  :  "  the  Pope  ordered  the  pulling 
down  of  several  houses  in  the  square  of  Monte- 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  257 


cavallo  on  the  right  hand,  as  far  as  the  wall  of 
the  Colonna,  to  make  it  more  spacious  for  the 
Court,  for  Consistories  and  other  public  cere- 
monies." 

I  translate  those  short  notices  from  the  Italian 
original  in  a  manuscript  of  the  former  library  of 
Urbino.  They  have,  as  far  as  I  know,  never  been 
used,  and  give  besides  exact  dates  about  the  early 
beginnings  of  the  work  on  Montecavallo,  also 
an  explanation  of  Sixtus  V's  intentions,  until  now 
only  conjectured  from  a  rare  print.  Giovanni 
Guerra,  one  of  the  staff  of  Sixtine  painters,  dis- 
played in  this  print  an  arrangement  of  the  horses 
which  would  have  made  of  Montecavallo  a  counter- 
piece  of  the  Fountain  of  Moses.  In  all  the  plans 
the  position  with  regard  to  the  street  coming 
from  Porta  Pia  remained  the  same,  the  obelisk 
appearing  only  in  1787,  the  basin  and  fountain  in 
1818. 

The  best  known  reports  on  the  changes  of 
"  Montecavallo  "  are  a  "  Memoria  "  by  Vacca  and  an 
account  published  by  the  zealous  archivist  Berto- 
lotti.  Vacca  was  not  only  present,  but,  according  to 
a  note  in  a  Vatican  manuscript  which  I  am  about 
to  publish,  was,  together  with  his  colleague  Egidio 
della  Riviera,  called  in  as  an  expert  before  the 
final  payment  was  made.  Important,  even  de- 
cisive documents,  have  been  brought  forward  by 
noted  scholars,  amongst  them  Michaelis,  the 
writer  of  so  many  interesting  articles  about 
s 


258 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Roman  collections,  and  lately  of  a  book  on  ex- 
cavations in  general. 

Heemskerk  cuts  the  Gordian  knot.  A  print 
and  drawing  of  this  artist,  to  whom  archae- 
ology is  so  indebted,  are  a  revelation  in  a  much- 
discussed  situation.  Another  print,  by  Lafrery, 
cautiously  used,  is  also  called  in  as  testimonial. 
From  the  various  sources  the  following  principal 
facts  result :  that  in  the  mediaeval  foundations  of 
the  Dioscuri  a  little  house  was  built,  and  that 
the  horses  were  badly  damaged,  especially  one  of 
them,  which  had  to  be  placed  in  a  studio  and 
completed  with  marble  extracted  from  the  old 
pedestal,  which  also  furnished  material  for  the 
new  base.  The  prints,  Vacca's  note,  and  numerous 
aesthetic  reasons  have  started  a  long  and  learned 
controversy  on  the  original  arrangement  of  the 
giants  and  horses.  The  argument  lies  outside  my 
programme.  My  readers  will  find  in  other  publica- 
tions every  possible  arrangement  of  the  men  and 
horses  studied  at  length,  and  will  form  their  own 
opinion  about  this  archaeological  puzzle. 

On  the  Capitoline  were  placed  in  the  last  year 
of  Sixtus  V's  reign  the  so-called  "trophies  of 
Marius,"  taken  from  an  old  reservoir  of  the  Aqua 
Julia,  still  in  the  square  Vittorio  Emanuele.  I 
reproduce  here  a  drawing  (from  the  National 
Print-room  in  Rome,  by  kind  permission  of  its 
director,  Dr.  Hermanin),  probably  by  Bril,  to 
whom  it  is  ascribed  in  the  print  by  Caylus,  show- 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  259 

ing  the  "trophies"  still  in  their  place.  The 
owner  of  the  spot,  Orazio  Savelli,  asked  in  1592 
permission  to  demolish  what  was  left  in  his  villa, 
"  Palombara,"  near  Sant'  Eusebio.  The  City 
Council  discussed  his  request,  and  decided  to 
send  two  commissioners  to  investigate.  Rodo- 
canacchi,  who  tells  this  in  his  beautiful  book  Le 
Capitole  Romain  Antique  et  Moderne  (lately,  as 
a  worthy  pendant,  he  published  a  similar  French 
book  about  the  Castel  Sant'  Angelo),  does  not 
refer  to  the  result  of  the  mission.  We  can 
imagine  that  it  was  a  refusal,  as  the  ruins  are 
still  there  with  their  magic  gate  next  to  them. 

In  decorating  the  Capitoline  hill  with  those 
marbles,  Sixtus  V  continued  the  work  of  his  pre- 
decessor, who  placed  at  the  top  of  the  staircase 
the  two  groups  of  Dioscuri.  Gregorius  XIII 
had  also  erected  the  campanile  in  its  present  form. 
Sixtus  took  away  a  statue  from  the  top  of  the 
tower,  not  admitting  that  a  pagan  statue  should 
have  a  higher  place  than  the  bells  !  The  fountain 
and  the  higher  basin  in  the  front  of  the  palace  of 
the  Senators  were  made  under  Sixtus  V.  The 
unhappy  architect  of  the  Acqua  Felice,  Matteo 
di  Castello,  made  the  plan,  most  probably  making 
use  of  the  ideas  of  Michelangelo,  the  scenographer 
of  the  Capitoline  hill.  The  Pope  sent  Matteo's 
project  to  the  City  Council  (1588).  An  animated 
discussion  followed,  and  the  matter  was  treated 
again  in  a  public  session  as  the  debates  against 


260 


SIXTINE  ROME 


the  opponents,  who  desired  first  to  see  the  water 
and  then  to  make  the  fountain,  could  come  to  no 
end.  The  conclusion  was,  as  could  be  foreseen, 
deference  to  the  papal  desire.  This  submission 
was  more  or  less  compulsory.  After  the  death 
of  Sixtus,  sharp  criticisms  were  uttered  against  the 
Pope  by  the  same  body.  Whatever  touches  the 
Capitoline  hill  is  apt  to  arouse  questions  in  Rome ; 
lately  a  universal  protest  has  met  the  proposal 
to  unite  the  three  Capitoline  palaces  for  reasons 
of  opportunity.  Opposition  rallied  under  the 
powerful  cry,  "  Do  not  touch  Michelangelo ! " 

Sixtus  V  had  during  his  life  a  statue  on  the 
Campidoglio.  It  was  placed  there  in  March  or 
April,  1587.  The  inscription  praised  him  as 
destroyer  of  brigands,  restorer  of  public  buildings, 
maker  of  roads,  of  an  aqueduct,  etc.  The  custom 
of  thus  honouring  the  reigning  Popes  was  not 
an  old  one,  and  indeed  marked  a  new  chapter  in 
the  history  of  the  struggle  between  the  city  repre- 
sentatives and  the  powerful  sovereigns  on  the  papal 
throne.  In  the  minutes  of  the  meetings  preserved 
in  the  Capitoline  archives  we  find  serious  discus- 
sions by  the  assembly  concerning  this  form  of 
recognition  of  favours  and  privileges.  The  human 
mind  is  naturally  opposed  to  honouring  the  living  in 
a  superlative  shape  of  life-size  statues.  Something 
warns  us  that  the  limits  even  of  flattery  are  passed. 
A  ruler  in  a  marble  or  bronze  figure  easily  becomes 
a  tyrant. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  261 

During  the  XVIth  century,  the  custom  endured 
without  objections.  Leo  X,  Paul  III,  Gregorius 
XIII,  and  Sixtus  V  had  their  statues  in  the  Palazzo 
de'  Conservatori  in  their  lifetimes.  The  death 
of  Sixtus  V  marked  for  a  moment  a  change 
of  opinion.  Fearing  a  violent  outburst  of  the 
Roman  population,  hurrying  to  the  Capitoline  hill 
to  destroy  Sixtus'  statue  the  very  day  after  his 
decease,  the  City  Council  ordered  the  statue  to 
be  covered  with  boards,  whilst  solemnly  for- 
bidding the  erection  of  statues  of  living  Popes. 
This  ultimatum  was  put  in  a  clever  form :  "  Who- 
ever would  propose  such  a  thing  in  secret  or  public 
gatherings  would  be  infamous  and  ineligible  to 
fill  a  place  in  the  Capitoline  offices."  The  in- 
sinuating flatterer  who  might  try  the  proposal 
for  the  sake  of  his  own  notoriety  was  thus  frus- 
trated. 

They  wished  to  bind  themselves  by  making  their 
firm  decision  public,  and  kept  it  continually  before 
their  eyes,  engraved  in  a  marble  plate  on  the  wall 
of  the  room  with  the  Fasti  Consulares.  In  the 
middle  of  the  XVIIth  century  the  inscription 
was  still  there.  The  law  which  enacted  the  good 
intentions  of  the  City  Council  was  abolished  by 
Urbanus  VIII  in  1034,  as  this  stern  edict  had  not 
hindered  the  authorities  from  ordering  and  mount- 
ing the  statues  they  dedicated  to  themselves  in 
1590.  Between  1590  and  1600  several  figures  were 
made  of  war  heroes  and  Popes.    Clemens  VIII 


262 


SIXTINE  ROME 


had  to  content  himself  with  a  new  head  on  the 
statue  of  Paulus  IV,  once  decapitated  by  the 
Roman  population.  Under  the  new  regime,  about 
1876,  most  of  the  statues  were  removed  to  the  old 
church  of  the  Roman  Senate,  Ara  Cceli.  Sixtus' 
statue,  till  the  middle  of  the  XVIIIth  century, 
in  the  Palazzo  de'  Conservatori,  has  probably 
made  the  same  ascent,  and  perhaps  gone  a  little 
farther,  to  the  monastery  of  his  order,  which  he 
may  have  revisited  in  effigy.  I  do  not  know 
where  the  statue  has  gone  since  the  works  for  the 
Vittorio  Emanuele  monument  have  totally  changed 
the  surroundings  and  taken  the  place  of  the  ex- 
tensive buildings  attached  to  the  church.  As  a 
work  of  Taddeo  Landini,  the  artist  of  the  "  Fon- 
tana  delle  Tartarughe,"  this  statue  must  have  been 
of  some  value. 

Other  remembrances  of  Sixtus  V  on  the 
Capitoline  hill — evidently  less  dear  to  him  than 
some  of  the  others — are  limited  to  a  doorway  in 
one  of  the  palaces  bearing  his  name ;  an  inscrip- 
tion, seen  by  Forcella,  a  collector  of  Roman  in- 
scriptions, mentioning  that  the  prison  there  had 
been  made  more  pleasant  and  more  spacious,  and 
another  inscription,  still  there,  on  the  back  of  the 
Trofee  di  Mario.  During  the  reign  of  Sixtus 
a  bronze  copy  had  been  made  of  Marcus  Aurelius' 
horse  to  be  sent  to  France  for  a  king's  monu- 
ment. 

Tempesti,  in  his  laborious  Vita  di  Sisto  Quinto, 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  263 

tells  us  of  one  more  Sixtine  deed  on  the  Capito- 
line  hill — a  Minerva  changed  into  a  "  Roma 
Christiana"  by  the  metamorphosis  of  her  lance 
into  a  cross.  In  the  same  place  he  alludes  to  an 
intention  ascribed  by  some  writers  to  Sixtus  V 
to  demolish  the  tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella.  The 
attempt  on  this  world-known  antique,  planned 
by  private  individuals,  was  arrested  by  public 
protest,  and  the  most  typical  landmark  of  the 
Roman  Campagna  escaped  the  fate  of  serving  as 
a  quarry  for  "  material  provided  by  the  Pope." 

The  religious  purposes  of  Sixtus  V  could  find 
a  better  vent  than  the  transformation  of  pagan 
antiquities,  using  them,  as  happened  already  with 
the  Vatican  obelisk,  as  a  monumental  support  for 
the  cross,  and  at  the  same  time  to  induce  impor- 
tant streets  to  become  frequented  by  the  inborn 
forces  of  the  city's  development. 

Not  only  the  obelisks,  but  even  the  columns  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  of  Trajan  became  in  this 
way  pedestals  for  Christian  images. 

The  writers  of  Sixtus'  own  time  noted  this 
characteristic  of  Sixtine  building  enterprises. 
Pietro  Galesino,  in  his  life  of  Sixtus  V — still  in 
manuscript — lays  great  weight  on  this  conversion 
of  pagan  into  Christian  monuments.  Another 
contemporary,  who  is  specially  pleased  with  the 
travesty  of  the  Minerva,  says  that  "  the  very  holy 
crosses  on  the  tops  of  obelisks  and  statues  of  the 
apostles  on  columns  cancel  the  memory  of  the  old 


264 


SIXTINE  ROME 


idolatry  ...  as  also  the  cross  placed  in  the  hand 
of  the  statue  on  the  tower  of  the  Campidoglio, 
meaning  Rome,  shows  us  that  nowadays  Roma, 
viz.  the  Pope,  does  not  wield  the  sword  to  sub- 
jugate the  world,  like  the  infidel  Roman  emperors, 
but  lifts  up  the  cross  to  shed  a  salutary  light  on 
the  universe. " 

The  Vatican  obelisk  was  the  model  for  the 
three  others  erected  under  Sixtus  V.  The  reli- 
gious ceremonies  which  took  place  when  the  cross 
was  placed  aloft,  and  the  institution  of  special 
indulgences  for  those  who  would  in  passing  render 
obeisance  to  it,  were  identical  at  San  Giovanni  in 
Laterano,  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  on  Piazza 
del  Popolo. 

The  obelisk  on  the  Lateran  square  was  found 
by  chance  on  the  15th  of  February,  1587,  in  the 
area  of  the  former  Circus  Maximus.  The  lucky 
discoverer  was  rewarded  with  300  scudi.  The 
enormous  block  of  red  granite  was  broken  in 
three  pieces  and  sunk  deep  in  the  marshy  ground, 
whilst  next  to  it  was  another  obelisk,  transported 
later  to  the  Piazza  del  Popolo.  Fontana  set  five 
hundred  men  to  work ;  three  hundred  of  them 
were  busy  day  and  night  keeping  back  the  water 
which  poured  from  many  streams  on  all  sides. 

It  may  have  been  a  rivulet,  the  ancient  Aqua 
Crabra  (Marrana),  which,  unmolested,  had  filtered 
through  the  earth  and  still  runs  swiftly  along  the 
new  archaeological  boulevard.    In  the  XVIIth  cen- 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  265 

tury,  the  rare  element  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  higher  authorities,  and  was  given  in  care 
of  the  St.  John  in  Lateran  chapter,  with  strict 
injunctions  not  to  obstruct  the  leaping  course  of 
this  "  goat  stream."  Even  by  Cicero  we  are  told 
of  this  brook.  In  the  Middle  Ages  this  water 
passed  through  the  Circus  Maximus  at  a  place 
called  "  Sci volenti."  Adinolfi,  in  his  book  Roma 
neir  eta  di  mezzo,  one  of  the  worst  written  books 
ever  published  in  Italy,  does  not  explain  this 
name ;  but  we  know  from  other  sources  that  it 
means  those  sloping  stairs  used  also  for  mules, 
like  the  access  to  the  Capitoline  hill. 

The  obelisk  of  the  Circus  Maximus  is  the 
highest  in  Rome.  Fontana  had  occasion  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  its  huge  size  and  enormous 
weight  when  he  transplanted  the  three  pieces 
along  the  Septizonium  towards  the  square ;  he 
does  not  specify  the  itinerary,  only  saying  that 
the  road  was  a  mile  long,  always  ascending  and 
jagged,  which  description  corresponds  to  any  one 
of  the  ways  between  the  spot  near  the  Septizo- 
nium and  the  present  place  of  the  obelisk. 

The  two  obelisks  found  in  the  Circus  presented 
that  peculiarity  that  they  were  not  perfectly  square. 
For  the  second  one,  Fontana  observes  its  fine 
position — on  the  Piazza  del  Popolo — in  the  visual 
ray  of  so  many  streets  :  the  Via  Flaminia,  coming 
from  Ponte  Molle,  "  which  on  both  sides  has  very 
beautiful  palaces  and  vineyards,  and,  inside  the 


266 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Porta  del  Popolo,  the  handsomest  entrance  to 
Rome." 

Via  Flaminia  outside  Porta  del  Popolo  was,  at 
the  end  of  the  XVIth  century,  the  fashionable 
drive,  as  is  nowadays  the  Pincio  in  winter  and  the 
Villa  Umberto  in  the  late  spring.  During  the  last 
years  of  Gregorius  XI IPs  reign  it  was  not  per- 
fectly safe  there.  A  monsignore,  brother  of  a 
Cardinal,  driving  on  that  promenade  in  his  own 
carriage,  had  been  killed  by  four  brigands  at  a 
crowded  hour  of  the  day ! 

The  smallest  of  the  obelisks,  that  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore,  was  found  severed  in  many  pieces, 
its  point  also  missing,  near  San  Rocco — prob- 
ably coming  from  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus. 
Another  obelisk  from  the  same  neighbourhood  was 
erected  in  1781  by  Pius  VI  in  a  Sixtine  monument 
— between  the  Dioscuri  of  Montecavallo. 

From  a  Vatican  manuscript  I  take  the  unedited 
note  that  Sixtus  had  intended  to  put  two  obelisks 
in  the  Piazza  di  Agona  (Piazza  Navona) ;  to  place 
in  the  Piazza  delle  Terme  Diocleziane  "  the  great 
and  beautiful  column  now  in  the  ruins  of  the 
Campo  Vaccino  (Forum  Romanum)  called  Tem- 
plum  Pacis,  with  a  statue  of  the  Madonna."  Cer- 
tainly this  means  the  column  of  the  Constantine 
basilica,  which  has  served  for  this  project  of  Sixtine 
origin. 

Instead  of  moving  other  shafts  of  marble  or 
granite,  Sixtus  thought  of  utilising  two  existing 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  267 


stately  "  pedestals,"  the  column  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
and  that  of  Trajan. 

The  combination  crossed  the  pontifical  mind  in 
the  straight  line  of  his  ideas  for  the  conversion  of 
pagan  monuments,  by  placing  on  the  summit  of 
the  columns  of  the  great  emperors  statues  of  the 
two  foremost  apostles. 

Fontana  states  in  his  report,  that  "  the  column 
of  the  supreme  and  best  of  all  Emperors  should 
be  dedicated  to  Petrus  the  prince  of  the  Apostles, 
and  that  of  the  Emperor- philosopher  Marcus 
Aurelius  to  the  philosophic  Apostle  Paulus." 

We  have  no  right  to  think  that  any  action  of 
Sixtus  V  in  Christianising  ancient  Rome  was 
conceived  without  meditation.  High  above  the 
palaces  would  appear  the  images  of  the  patron 
saints  of  the  Eternal  City ! 

The  column  of  Marcus  Aurelius  was  in  very  bad 
condition.  The  City  Council  repeatedly  held  dis- 
cussions on  the  subject,  and  more  than  once  sent 
commissioners  to  the  spot  to  judge  the  danger.  It 
remained  for  Sixtus  V,  with  the  ever-resourceful 
Fontana,  to  save  the  column  from  sure  ruin.  The 
busy  architect  does  not  waste  much  space  in  his 
report  on  the  story  of  this  restoration,  stating 
that  the  Colonna  Antonina  was,  partly  by  age,  and 
partly  having  been  burnt  by  the  Barbarians,  re- 
duced to  such  a  state  that  it  seemed  impossible 
rather  than  difficult  to  restore  it.  Wide  cracks 
went  across  the  surface,  which  also  offered  alarming 


268 


SIXTINE  ROME 


holes.  Fontana  made  a  circular  scaffold  to  the  top, 
and  added  in  the  open  spaces  pieces  of  marble  with 
figures  carved  in  the  style  of  the  long  winding  pro- 
cession. Authentically  it  is  not  certain  that  the 
metal  for  the  gilded  St.  Paul  on  the  top  came  from 
an  antique  pilaster  of  the  Pantheon.  In  the 
manuscript  of  short  notices  about  current  events 
(Urbin.  Lat.  1055),  I  found  that  the  material  was 
sought  for  all  over  Rome,  and,  from  a  suggestion 
there,  I  gather  that  the  bronze  doors  of  Sant' 
Agnese  at  least  incurred  the  risk  of  vanishing  in 
the  mighty  metal  shape  of  the  apostle  Paulus. 

The  restorations  made  by  Sixtus  V  were  satis- 
factory. Hiibner  did  not  believe  it.  He  declares 
that  the  column  was  completely  taken  down  in 
the  end  of  the  XVIIth  century  to  undergo  a 
new  restoration.  This  fait  presque  oublie,  as  he 
calls  it,  has  been  furnished  to  him  by  an  engraving 
of  1696  in  the  Print-room  in  Paris,  representing 
the  square  without  the  monument.  It  startles  us 
to  think  that  an  historian  of  Hiibner's  standing 
could  commit  such  a  mistake,  His  lapsus  calami 
makes  us  forget  the  engraver  who  was  the  first 
culprit,  and  who  was  surely  not  very  capable  in 
his  profession !  Nobody  could  call  such  an  omis- 
sion merely  a  careless  disregard  for  details.  .  .  . 

In  October,  1588,  the  column  was  solemnly 
inaugurated.  A  patriarch,  after  celebrating  mass 
in  San  Lorenzo,  headed  a  procession  to  the  square, 
accompanied  by  the  papal  singers,  to  bless  the 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  269 


column  with  its  statue.  Probably  here  also  the 
column  was  first  exorcised,  according  to  a  note  of 
Alaleone's  diary,  as  happened  before,  in  November, 
1587,  for  the  column  of  Trajan. 

The  Trajan  column  has  always  pleased  the 
artists  more  than  its  successor  on  the  actual 
Piazza  Colonna,  and  its  designs  were  drawn  by 
Giulio  Romano  and  Muziano.  Many  engravers 
of  the  XVIth  century  reproduced  the  monu- 
ment in  print.  Michelangelo,  who  lived  in  its 
neighbourhood,  made  a  drawing,  brought  forward 
in  a  session  of  the  City  Council  as  a  project  for 
improving  the  surroundings.  From  being  a  bell 
tower  in  the  time  of  Charles  V's  visit,  it 
became  during  the  XVIth  century  the  cynosure 
of  learned  and  aesthetic  minds.  It  passed  through 
all  the  stages  of  the  people's  growing  love  for  an- 
tiquity, becoming  an  ever-increasing  responsibility 
for  the  government  authorities  and  the  leading 
scholarly  men,  who  had  taken  the  place  of  the 
rare  students  seen  in  early  engravings  walking 
around  its  base. 

The  people,  who  had  already  begun  to  know 
their  Pope,  saw  in  September,  1585,  several 
months  after  his  coronation,  a  mock  statue  of 
an  apostle  erected  on  the  top  of  the  column, 
which  they  persistently  called  the  "  Colonna  Tra- 
jana."  The  next  month  the  Pope  came  in  person 
to  see  the  effect  of  this  figure.  He  must  have 
been  well  pleased,  for,  at  the  same  time  and  on  the 


270 


SIXTINE  ROME 


same  occasion,  he  expressed  his  intention  of  re- 
uniting the  square  of  Santi  Apostoli  with  the  Forum 
Trajani.  In  this  grandiose  conception  he  was 
held  back  by  the  Palazzo  del  duca  di  Sora,  and  by 
the  elegant  little  church  Santa  Maria  di  Loreto. 
He  relinquished  his  project,  and,  as  before  stated, 
there  arose  between  the  two  squares  in  Sixtus' 
reign  the  palace  of  Cardinal  Bonello  (now  Palazzo 
della  Prefuttura). 

Christian  antiquity  was  to  come  next  in  the 
pontifical  care  for  monuments.  We  are  not  sur- 
prised at  finding  that  the  old  basilicas  did  come 
under  his  attention,  for  besides  the  important 
restoration  in  Santa  Sabina,  including  his  making 
the  steep  road  leading  to  the  church  practicable 
again,  he  restored  notably  the  churches  of  San 
Pudenziana  and  San  Clemen te,  of  which  he  opened 
the  side  door,  and  Sant'  Adriano. 

On  a  par  with  classical  antiquity,  Christian 
antiquity  commenced  its  conquest  of  learned 
minds.  It  was  perfectly  natural  that  the  scholars 
who  studied  so  zealously  and  patiently  the  works 
of  the  Church  fathers,  the  lives  of  the  Christian 
martyrs,  and  the  first  centuries  of  Roman  su- 
premacy in  ecclesiastical  history,  should  rivet  their 
talents  on  proofs  and  documents,  unused,  though 
at  hand,  underground,  in  the  nearest  vicinity  of 
the  Roman  walls. 

The  coming  Christian  archaeology  should  have 
all  the  advantages  of  a  ready  system  of  investiga- 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  271 


tion  and  construction,  initiated  by  classical  Archae- 
ology, which  first  reached  its  highest  development 
in  the  second  half  of  the  XVIth  century.  The 
study  of  Roman  archaeology  had  reached  very  far, 
down  to  investigations  of  mere  trifles,  publications 
of  rare  fragments  of  ancient  authors,  and  the  imi- 
tation of  archaic  Latin  by  the  most  refined  who 
were  not  satisfied  with  the  phraseology  of  Cicero, 
when  writing  the  language  of  Latium. 

The  Roman  monuments  were  drawn,  measured, 
and  described,  inscriptions  gathered,  classical  litera- 
ture ransacked,  testimonials  of  Greek  authors 
called  in,  all  sources  of  information  drained,  every 
effort  made  to  bring  forward  the  truest  image  of 
ancient  Rome  from  the  ruins  of  a  city,  seen  in  the 
dawn  of  its  reviving  culture. 

While  this  image  appeared  clear  and  sharp 
behind  the  potent  lens  of  science,  where  until 
then  nothing  had  been  but  a  dull  glass  in  the 
camera  oscura  of  ignorance,  Christian  archaeology 
remained  in  the  silence  of  a  library,  and,  if  shining 
forth  in  daylight,  was  tempered  by  the  windows  of 
a  council  chamber. 

The  propelling  forces  of  faith,  the  inspiration 
drawn  from  martyrs'  heroism,  the  passion  which 
belongs  to  everything  strongly  religious,  and  the 
cult  for  the  sacred  spots  of  the  earliest  Christian 
times,  was  now  to  burst  forth  in  a  mass  of  rays 
and  to  illumine  the  Rome  which  lay  underground. 
Only  modesty  and  retirement,  sharing  in  the  most 


272 


SIXTINE  ROME 


cultured  form  of  belief,  can  explain  why  Christian 
archaeology  remained  so  long,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  still  remains,  an  unassuming  science, 
always  retaining  something  of  the  silence  and 
the  shudder  of  the  catacombs.  Religion  and 
science  soldered  together  have  clasped  that  ring  of 
reserve. 

Nevertheless,  Christian  archaeologists  have  from 
the  very  beginning  adopted  modern  methods  by 
accepting  the  latest  system  of  classical  archaeology. 
From  that  standpoint  they  attracted  their  col- 
leagues, who  were,  however,  too  much  attached 
to  their  own  branch  to  abandon  it  for  the  olive 
boughs  of  the  learned  cultores  martyrum.  Fulvio 
Orsini,  in  his  career  as  a  leading  Roman  archae- 
ologist, wandered  off  for  a  while  on  the  field  of 
Church  history.  When  he  finally  returned  to  his 
first  and  lasting  sympathies,  and  edited  the  book 
De  Triclinio,  left  by  his  friend  Ciacconius  and 
treating  of  the  old  Roman  table-manners,  he 
apologised  in  a  lengthy  introduction  to  Sixtus  V 
for  clinging  to  pagan  antiquity  and  excuses 
this  work  as  elucidating  some  passages  of  the 
Bible. 

Christian  archaeologists  were  primarily  occupied 
with  publications  and  critical  studies  of  the  written 
history.  In  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V  and  a  few 
years  after,  two  collections  of  the  martyrs'  lives, 
besides  the  Martyrologium  of  Baronius,  were  pub- 
lished in  Rome,  1586.    Pietro  Galesino  had,  before 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  273 


Baronius,  set  his  energies  to  the  same  subject.  In 
1591  appeared  another  book,  by  Antonio  Gallonio, 
which,  from  its  harrowing  descriptions,  seems  to 
have  been  inspired  by  the  cruel  frescoes  of  Santo 
Stefano  Rotondo.  I  wonder  if  this  author  wrote 
the  letter  to  Pomarancio  the  painter,  inciting  him 
to  become  utterly  realistic  in  order  to  impress  the 
public  whom  he  would  torture  in  his  turn.  .  .  . 

Modernism  appears  in  its  most  attractive  form 
in  the  Roma  Sotterranea,  by  Bosio.  This  book 
came  out  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the 
XVIIth  century,  and  has  not  only  been  modelled 
after  the  epoch-making  works  of  classical  archae- 
ology, but  served  in  turns  as  a  model  for  the 
monumental  Roma  Sotterranea  of  de  Rossi  and 
for  those  who  continued  in  his  footsteps. 

Even  Bosio's  dates  and  years,  chronological 
landmarks  of  his  journeys  under  the  Roman 
Campagna,  do  not  occur  in  the  pontificate  of 
Sixtus  V,  but  are  all  some  years  later. 

Discoveries  in  the  catacombs  were  few  and  far 
between  since  the  remarkable  date,  May  31, 
1578,  when  the  news  flew  over  Rome  that  an 
underground  city  had  been  found  at  the  Via 
Salaria,  until  the  earliest  dates  in  Bosio's  book 
and  his  thorough  researches.  We  sometimes  find 
a  Christian  inscription  that  had  been  copied,  but 
none  from  the  catacombs.  Vacca  in  his  Memoirs 
hardly  mentions  Christian  antiquities,  only  touch- 
ing that  science  when  he  speaks  of  an  epitaph 

T 


274 


SIXTINE  ROME 


with  the  name  of  Pontius  Pilatus.  Memoria  79 
tells  us  about  Matteo  da  Castello  finding  on  the 
Aventine  leaden  vases  with  Christian  coins,  and 
Memoria  115  about  a  subterranean  Christian 
basilica  with  mural  paintings,  near  Santa  Croce  in 
Gerusalemme. 

The  devout  wayfarers  certainly  have  continued 
the  mediaeval  custom  of  visiting  a  few  spots  in 
the  catacombs,  safe  enough  to  admit  humble 
pilgrims.  They  may  have  wandered  perhaps  to 
more  hidden  sanctuaries  of  the  Via  Salaria  and 
carried  away  with  them  a  number  of  fragile  little 
bottles  as  relics  to  their  northern  homes. 

Only  one  of  them,  a  young  Belgian  with  a  thirst 
for  knowledge,  penetrated  to  the  unknown  land 
of  the  new  science  with  a  firm  purpose  to  learn. 
Philippus  van  Winghen  had  come  to  Rome  in 
the  last  twelve  months  of  Sixtus'  rule.  Perhaps 
he  had  come  in  the  company  of  his  brother  Guy 
Morillon,  Bishop  of  Tournay,  who  is  mentioned  as 
being  in  the  Eternal  City  at  that  time.  Philippus 
set  to  work  immediately,  studying  the  Gregorian 
gallery  of  maps  in  the  Vatican.  His  countryman, 
the  famous  geographer  Abraham  Ortelius,  waited 
for  his  letters  to  decide  several  cartographical 
facts  for  his  work  in  preparation.  In  the  printed 
collection  of  all  the  letters  addressed  to  Ortelius 
preserved  in  England,  are  many  from  Italy,  as, 
for  instance,  one  from  his  countryman  Montanus 
— the  author   of  a  world's  map,  containing  a 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  275 

precious  indication  of  America — and  many  from 
the  principal  Italian  geographers.  Amongst  them 
was  Ignazio  Dante,  the  cherished  cartographer  of 
Italy  in  the  XVIth  century,  who  could  not  find 
grace  in  the  eyes  of  his  own  countrymen,  and  even 
went  down  in  the  estimation  of  van  Winghen. 
The  importance  of  the  northern  printing  establish- 
ments about  the  time  of  Sixtus  V  ought  not  to  be 
underrated,  even  in  the  special  branch  of  Italian 
geography.  Amongst  the  very  rare  maps  of  the 
Roman  Campagna  of  the  XVIth  century,  the 
one  published  by  Mercator  has  lately  received 
special  consideration  in  Tomassetti's  La  Campagna 
Ttomana  antica,  medievale  e  modcrna,  Roma,  1910. 
A  modern  author  on  the  geography  of  Italy, 
Deecke,  praises  the  map  of  Italy  made  in  1589  by 
Mercator  and  Ortelius. 

On  Christmas  Day,  1589,  van  Winghen  sends 
a  long  letter  to  his  friend  in  Antwerp  full  of  active 
scientific  topics  of  Sixtine  Rome,  just  as  a  student 
in  our  days  would  write  to  a  Professor  at  home. 
The  latest  prints,  maps,  and  books  are  men- 
tioned ;  for  instance,  a  volume  of  Battista  Porta 
about  physiognomy,  a  favourite  subject  of  former 
centuries  in  Italy,  where  physiognomy  can  always 
be  studied.  He  knows  Ciacconius,  who  owned 
the  bust  cabinet  of  small-sized  antiquities,  though 
everything  was  already  pawned.  The  conclusion 
is  a  real  Christmas  Eve  expression  of  home- 
sickness.  .   .   .    Italy   is   beautiful   .   .    .  but 


276 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Antwerp  is  better  .  .  .  the  home  which  he  was 
never  to  see  again. 

Sixtus  V  is  praised,  but  Camilla  Peretti,  who 
made  herself  unpopular,  does  not  share  in  the 
eulogy  in  this  letter. 

On  September  1,  1590,  another  lengthy  missive 
tells  about  the  Pope's  demise,  van  Winghen 
remarking  that  the  Pope's  irritation  against  the 
Spanish  Ambassador  was  the  real  cause  of  his 
death.  In  referring  to  the  anecdote,  Sixtus  is 
reported  to  have  said  in  his  last  days :  "  How 
could  I  live  on,  having  four  fevers — the  Spaniards, 
the  brigands,  the  famine,  and  natural  fever  ? " 

Young  van  Winghen  lived  in  Rome  about 
two  years,  and  in  1592  was  asked  by  the  king 
of  archaeology,  Justus  Lipsius,  for  information  on 
the  latest  discoveries.  His  last  letter  from  here 
is  dated  July  1,  1592,  in  which  he  adds  that  he 
has  drawn  the  map  of  Latium  from  the  Galleria 
delle  Carte  Geografiche.  Soon  after,  in  the  same 
year,  he  passed  away  in  Florence,  whence  the 
notice  of  his  death  reached  the  Netherlands  in  a 
few  weeks — a  shock  to  his  friends  and  relatives, 
and  particularly  to  his  brother-in-law,  who  had 
parted  from  him  in  Rome  in  August,  1590. 

In  that  same  year  (1590)  the  young  scholar  had 
walked  to  a  deserted  spot  outside  Rome,  where 
the  Via  Salaria  steeply  descends  to  the  Anio,  to 
study  an  old  Christian  cemetery  now  recognised 
as  one  of  the  most  interesting  catacombs :  those 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  277 


of  Priscilla,  with  the  double  basilica,  lately  re- 
constructed on  this  old  foundation ;  the  basilica 
of  St.  Silvester,  accepted  as  the  spot  where  St. 
Peter  baptised.  Van  Winghen  prepared  himself 
by  reading  the  volumes  of  the  Church  Fathers 
and  of  Baronius'  Annals ',  those  which  had  ap- 
peared before  then  and  to  which  he  had  furnished 
some  material.  The  manuscript  of  van  Winghen, 
now  in  the  Royal  Library  in  Brussels,  notes  from 
the  catacombs  of  Priscilla  :  sarcophagi,  graffitti, 
monograms,  and  inscriptions.  In  October,  1594, 
Bosio  followed  his  traces  and  left  a  more  complete 
description  of  the  territory  in  his  book  Roma 
Sotterranea,  which  contains  maps  drawn  by  van 
Winghen. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  dwell  on  the  specific 
merits  of  van  Winghen  and  Bosio,  or  their 
predecessor  Bandini.  As  to  the  description  of 
the  cemetery  of  Priscilla  and  the  basilica  of 
St.  Silvester,  I  advise  the  studious  reader  to 
peruse  the  Italian  article  of  Professor  Marucchi 
in  the  Nnova  Bullettino  di  Archeologia  Crist liana, 
1908,  and  all  who  are  in  Rome  at  Christmas 
time  not  to  miss  the  31st  December — St.  Sil- 
vester— at  the  above-mentioned  place,  once  {anno 
962)  called  in  a  papal  bull  in  desertis,  but  not 
at  all  deserted  on  that  day.  The  territory, 
called  in  the  papyrus  of  Monza  (VIth  century) 
the  seat  of  Petrus,  on  which  a  unique  example 
of  a  double  basilica  is  built  on  the  old  founda- 


278 


SIXTINE  ROME 


tions,  has  been  presented  to  the  Commissione 
d'Archeologia  Sacra,  dependent  on  the  Vatican,  by 
Victor  Emanuel  III,  King  of  Italy,  after  the 
royal  couple,  both  interested  in  archaeology,  had 
visited  the  excavations  on  this  part  of  their 
Villa  Savoia.  This  incident  in  itself  shows  the 
great  encouragement  given  by  their  Majesties 
to  this  science.  To  those  who  enjoy  philoso- 
phising on  history,  the  royal  present  to  a  com- 
mission connected  with  the  living  successor  of 
St.  Peter  will  inspire  meditation,  and  demon- 
strate that  science  in  Rome  is  great  in  unexpected 
effects. 

I  have  now  come  to  the  end  of  what  I  had  in 
mind  to  relate  of  Sixtine  Rome.  I  realise  that 
I  could  embellish  this  single  volume  and  add 
several  others,  and  that  then  I  should  not  have 
exhausted  the  subject. 

In  the  mining  district  of  historical  science  1 
have  only  descended  far  enough  to  bring  above 
ground  the  material  that  I  wanted.  I  have  seen 
many  long  galleries  with  far  lights  flickering  at 
their  ends.  .  .  .  But  should  I  really  do  a  service 
to  my  readers  on  a  Roman  evening  like  this  San 
Silvestro  if  I  heaped  more  wood  on  their  fireplace, 
and  so  kept  it  alight  all  night,  until  the  morning 
of  the  new  year? 

Sixtine  Rome  waits  to  be  discovered  in  the 
luminous  majesty  outside.    The  prophet  of  the 


DESTRUCTION  OF  SEPTIZONIUM  279 


Bible — for  ever  furious  against  Prospero  Bresciano 
— commands  the  water.  With  true  Latin  ca- 
priciousness,  it  escapes  to  spout  forward  again 
between  the  Dioscuri  and  speeds  along  to  the 
hills,  where  the  Porta  Furba  programme  is  ful- 
filled. The  dome  of  St.  Peter's  expands  in  full 
glory,  and  the  statues  of  the  Apostles  look  on 
over  the  Rome  of  many  Popes  after  Sixtus  V. 


THE  END 


INDEX 


Abruzzi,  55 

"Acqua  Felice/'   22  seq.,  181, 
256,  259 
Cost  of,  171 
Itinerary,  14 
Sources,  59 

Water-supply  :  its  flavour,  58 
"  Acqua  Vergine,"  20,  21 
Adinolfi,  Roma  neW  eta  di  mezzo, 
265 

Alaleone,  Master  of  Ceremonies, 
60 

Diaries,  100,  168 

Trajan  Column,  269 
Alatri,  houses,  182 
Albano,  55 

Albano  Palace.    See  Mattei 
Albertini,  Francesco,  Opusculum 

de  Mirabilibus  novae  urbis  Roma, 

184 

Aldobrandini,    Cardinal  Hippo- 

lytus,  Clemens  VIII,  47,  48 
Aldobrandini  fresco,  233 
Aldovrandi,  Ulisse,  253 
Alexander  VI,  grave,  156 
Alexander  VII,  169 
Alexander  VIII,  128 
Alexander  Severus,  aqueduct,  22 
Algardi,  Alessandro,  242 
Altemps,  Duke  of,  128 
Alum  quarries,  63,  64 
Ameiden,  220 

on  Florentine  and  Genoese 
bankers,  190 

on  Mattei  Palace,  178 


America,  81 

Ammanati,    Bartolommeo,  148, 
150,  170 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  on  rais- 
ing obelisk,  169 
Anagni,  houses,  182 
Ancona,  55 

Antique  remains,  discoveries  of, 

243,  244 
Antiquities,  culture  of,  33 
Antwerp,     Plantin  -  Muretus 

Museum,  134 

Printed  proof  page,  137 
Anzio,  67 

Aqua  Crabra  (Marrana),  264 
Aqueducts,  11,  15  seq.,  20,  22. 

See  also  Acqua  Felice  and  under 

Sixtus  V 
Ara  Coeli,  Sixtus  V  visits  convent, 

106 

Archaeology,  232 

Pagan  and  Christian,  270  ttq. 

Arch  of  Constantine — 
As  a  fortress,  237 
Explorer  at  base,  226 

Archives  of  daily  life,  10 

Arco  di  Portogallo,  68 

Ariccia,  bridge  of,  55 

Armada,  Invincible,  48,  96 

Armellini,  185 

Art,    rehabilitation    of  ancient 

Christian,  209 
Artist,  collaboration  with  scientist, 

85 

Artists,  contracts  and  financial 
traits,  173 


28 1 


282 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Astrology,  114,  189 

Austria  and  Sigismund  of  Poland, 
pacification  between,  47,  48 

Avvisi  of  Rome,  21,  43,  114,  165 
on  cupola  of  St.  Peter's,  223 
on  Cardinal  Dezza,  197 
on  Palace  of  Justice,  68 
on  plans  for  Coliseum,  225 

Azpilcueta,  Martinus,  200 

B 

Baglione,  228 

on  Prospero  Bresciano,  23 
on  Fontana  going  to  Naples, 
229 

on  Sixtus  V,  44 
Bagnaja  Villa.    See  Lante 
Baldinucci,  on  lightning  storms, 

221 

Balzani,  Count,  Biography  of  Six- 
tus V,  152 
Banchi,  streets  around,  176 
Bandinelli,  Baccio  : 

Fountain,  211 

Restoring  Laocoon,  241 
Bandini,  277 

"  Bandits,"  origin  of  word,  51 
Bankers,  Florentine  and  Genoese, 

189,  190 
Barberini-Barberi  distich,  226 
Barber  ini   Library.     See  under 

Vatican  Library 
Baronius,  Cardinal  Librarian,  129, 
131,  132 

Annals,  277 

Marty  rologium,  272 

on  "  Papessa  Giovanna,"  245 

Searching  Catacombs,  207 
Baths  of  Diocletian,  240 
Battleships,  96 
Beards,  116 

Beggars,  52,  53,  54,  116 
Bellay,  Cardinal  du,  72,  208 
Belli,  Gioacchino,  245 


Bellori,  on  Fontana  leaving  Rome, 
230 

Bellori,  on  raising  obelisk,  169 
Bembo,    Pietro,    epitaph  on 

Raphael,  36 
Bernini,    fountain    in  Piazza 

Navona,  22 
Bernini,  works,  131,  132 
Bertolotti,  239,  257 

Book  on  obelisk,  150,  151 
Blancus,  Guglielmo,  88 
Boccaccio,  245 
Bolognese,  Lattanzio,  100 
Bolsena,  Lake  of,  84 
Boncompagni,  Prince,  93 
Boncompagni,    Ugo.    See  Gre- 

gorius  XIII 
Bonello,  Cardinal,  palace,  270 
Boniface  VIII,  65 
Books,  Old, 

Dedicating,  138 

Investigating,  136 

Production  of,  137 

Store,  10 
Books,  parchment  bound,  9 
Borghese,  Palazzo,  197 
Bosio,  founder  of  Christian  archae- 
ology, 199 

Roma  Sotterranea,  273,  277 
Bracciano  Castle,  193 
Bracciano,  Duchess  of,  159 
Bracciano,  Lake  of,  84,  122 
Bramante,  in  Rome,  251 

Plan  for  St.   Peter's,  214, 
215 

Brancaleone,  Cardinal,  237 
Bresciano,  Prospero,  23,  279 

Bronze  lions,  169 

Moses,  22,  23 

Tomb  of  Gregorius  XIII,  23 
Brigands,  50,  51,  59,  107 
Bril,  drawing  of  "Trophies  of 

Marius,"  258 
Bril,  landscapes,  76 
Bruges,  189 


INDEX 


283 


Brunellesco,  bronze  doors  of  Bat- 
tistero,  Florence,  186 

Buchellius,  Arnold,  191,  194 
on  Romans,  115 

Bufalini,  map  of  Rome,  180 

Buildings,  modern,  with  ancient 
inscriptions  and  bas-reliefs,  9 

Burckhardt,  "  Culture  in  the  Re- 
naissance," 203 

Buttresses  ("  Poggi 13 

C 

Callot,  Jacques,  80 
Calvarello,  Monte,  244 
Campagna,  11 

Antiquities,  3 

Arches  for  gates,  15 

Silence  of,  13 
Campomorto,  oak  woods,  152 
Cancellaria  Palace,  94 
Cancellieri,  Abbate,  MS.  books, 
204 

Canonisations,  123 
Capitol,  91 

Capitoline  Hill,  259  seq. 

Houses  round,  181 
Capitoline  Museum — 

Bronzes,  18G 

Collections,  253 

Founded,  236 

Model  of  coal-scales,  7 
Capodiferro     (Spada)  Palace 

statues,  253 
Caprarola  Villa,  84,  85,  92,  192, 
193,  195 

Frescoes,  87,  237 

"Rocca,"  194 
Caracalla's  Baths,  224 

Mosaic,  208 
Carafa,  Cardinal  Librarian,  89, 

129 

Caraifa,  Francesco,  duca  d'Andria, 
256 

Carnival  races  (1589),  71 


Caro,  Annibale,  87 
Carpi  Villa,  197 

Cartaro,  Marco,  map  of  Rome, 
181 

Castello,  Matteo  da,  architect  of 
Acqua  Felice,  244,  259,  274 

Castiglione,  Cortigiano,  142 

Catacombs — 

Discoveries  in,  273 

Inscriptions,  207 

SS.  Nereo  and  Achilleo,  209 

Catafalques,  227,  230 

Catena,  Bartolomeo,  116 

Catena,    Girolamo,  Correspon- 
dence, 137 

on  Palazzo  Valentini,  184 

Caylus,  print,  258 

Ceiling  painting,  86 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  240 

Cenci  Palazzo,  253 

Census  reports,  185 

Cerasoli,  on  Streets  of  Rome,  153 

Cerchi — Circus  Maximus,  Obelisk 
and  inscription,  73,  74 

Cervetri,  122 

Cesi,  Cardinal,  144 

Cesi,  Palazzo,  Collections,  254 

Charles  V,  Emperor,  40 ;  entry 
into  Rome,  237 

Chemists'  shops',  6 

Christina    of    Sweden,  Queen, 
library,  128,  129 

Churches,  new,  209 

Churches,  restoration  of,  209  seq. 

Ciacconius,  Antiquities,  275 
De  Triclinio,  272 

Civita  Castellana,  193 

Civitavecchia,  60,  96,  124,  193 

Clemens  VII,  241 

Clemens  VIII,  47,  109,  206,  216, 
229 

Clemens  XI,  215 
Climate,  changes  in,  220 
Coal-basket  and  scales,  7 
Coats  of  arms  of  Popes,  29,  101 


284 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Codex  Escurialensis  (Egger's  Edi- 
tion), 225 
Coliseum,  91 
Doorway,  7 
Dunes  round,  225 
Plan  for  turning  it  into  a  wool 
factory,  224,  225,  226 
Collot,  Jacques,  engravings,  182 
Colonna,  Cardinal,  59,  128 
Colonna,  Marcantonio,  47 
Colonna,  Piazza,  186  ;  fresco,  109, 
111 

Colonna  Village,  14 

Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  109, 

168,  263,  267 
Column  of  Trajan,  21,  168,  263, 

267,  269 

Column,  Templum  Pacis  (Con- 

stantine  Basilica),  266 
Comedians  and  Comedies,  106, 

107 

Italian  in  France,  107 
Como,  146 

Conde,   Prince  de,  on  Lateran 

Palace,  208 
Conservatori,  Palazzo  de,  Statues 

of  Popes,  261 
Corso,  3 
Courtyard,  7 
Cupra,  37 

Cyriacus  of  Ancona,  126 
D 

Dalmatia,  37 

d' Ancona,  travels  of  Montaigne, 
55 

Dante,    Ignazio,  cartographer, 
275 

Deecke,  on  Map  of  Mercator  and 

Ortelius,  275 
Dejob,  de  VInfiuence  du  Concile  de 

Trente,  198 
Desiosi  Company,  106,  107,  108 
d'Este,  Cardinal,  197 


d'Este  Villa.    See  Quirinal  Palace 
d'Este  Villa,  Tivoli,  71,  93,  196, 
197 

Dezza,  Cardinal,  197, 198 
Diocletian's  Baths,  drawings  and 

prints  of,  208 

Silk  industry  in,  225 
Dioscuri  of  Quirinal,  124,  177, 

255,  256,  258 
Discovery,  desire  for,  1 
Dollinger,  Dr.,  245 
Doorways,  4,  7,  8,  183 
Doria,  Palazzo,  187 

Entrance,  8 
Dowries,  54  and  n.,  92 
Drago,  del,  Palace.    See  Mattei 
Druggists,  113 

Duchesne,  Monsignor,  edited  Liber 

Pontificalis,  236 
Duquesnoy,  Francesco,  49,  241 
Durante :    Treasure   of  Health, 

112 

E 

Earthquakes  affecting  St.  Peter's, 
221 

Ehrle,  Padre,  71,  210 

on  dedicating  engravings,  138 
Eleonora  di  Toledo,  portrait,  192 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  47 
Engraving,  art  of,  182 
Erythraeus,  Johannes  Nicius  (Ros- 

cius),  199,  200,  201 
Escurial,  177 

Este,  Villa.  See  d'Este,  Villa,  and 

Quirinal  Palace 
Eulogy  in  inscriptions,  41 
Excavations,  9,  232,  233,  243, 

244,  247,  248,  253 

F 

Facchetti  of  Mantua,  89 
Falda,  engravings,  182 


INDEX 


285 


Farnese,  Cardinal  Alessandro,  61, 
192.  See  also  "Orti  Farnesiani " 

Farnese,  Isola,  194 

Farnese,  Palazzo,  192 

Fiano  Palace,  68 

Firenze  Palazzo,  189 

Fiume  Sisto,  65 

Florence,  145 

Diary  on  raising  obelisk,  170 
Fountain  by  Bandinelli,  24 
Reminders  in  Rome,  189 

Florentine  bankers,  189,  190 

Foglietta,  Guido  Baldo,  on  action 
of  wheels  on  pavement,  152 

Foligno,  152 

Fontana,  Domenico,  73,  74,  79, 
80,  83,  89,  132  seq.,  208 

Account  books,  171 

Bridge  over  Tiber  at  Bor- 
ghetto,  229 

Brought  Acqua  Felice  to 
Rome,  25 

Buildings  in  Naples,  230,  231 

Catafalque  for  Philip  II,  230 

Catafalque  for  Sixtus  V,  227 

Coat  of  arms,  90J 

Correspondence  and  book- 
keeping, 154 

Death  in  Naples,  231 

Destruction  of  Septizonium, 
238,  239 

Gold  chain,  89,  90,  133,  139 

House,  90 

Leaves    Rome   for  Naples, 

227  seq. 
on  Wednesday  and  Sixtus  V, 

115 

Papal  "  privilege,"  151 
Portrait,  133,  134 
Public  oration,  162 
Raising   obelisk,    142  seq., 

158  seq. 

Model  for,  147,  149 
Reforms  plan  of  Rome,  173, 

177,  178 


Fontana,  Domenico — 

Reminiscences,  133  seq. 

Dedication,  135,  139 
Retained  by  Urbanus  VII,  206 
Safe  of  papal  household,  125 
Sketch  of  career,  140  seq. 
Style,  142 

Transporting    obelisk  from 
Circus  Maximus,  264,  265 
Fontana,  Giovanni,  229 
Fontana,  Julius  Caesar,  231 
Forcella,   collection   of  inscrip- 
tions, 262 
Fountains,  17,  20  seq. 

Commissions    for  mainten- 
ance, 21 
in  Vatican  garden,  196 
Inscription  near  Santa  Sus- 
anna, 20 
of  the  Little  Boat,  21 
Moses,  22,  125,  240,  257 

Coat  of  arms  on,  30 
delle  Tartar ughe,  24,  25,  262 
di  Trevi,  20,  21,  22,  180,  187 
Francesco  I,  Duke  of  Urbino,  38 
Frascati,  13,  14,  18 
French  Ambassador  in  Rome,  167 
Frescoes,  whitewashing,  33 

G 

Gaeta,  65 

Galesino,   Pietro,   63,   64,  165, 
168,  272 

Life  of  Sirtus  V,  263 
Galle,  prints,  121 
Galley-slaves,  96,  97 
"Galleys,"  Papal,  54,  61 
Gallonio,  Antonio,  273 
Gambara,  Cardinal,  195 
Gambling,  113,  114,  188 
Genazzano  houses,  182 
Genoa — case  of  quarantine,  112 
Genoese  bankers,  190 
Ghisleri,  Cardinal.    See  Pius  V 
Giotto,  frescoes,  7,  87 


286 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Giulio,  Papa,  Villa,  104 

Museum,  185 

Paintings,  84 
Gnoli,  185 

Gold,  secret  of  making,  72 
Goltzius,  Henricus,  97 
"  Gonfalone,"  banner,  56 
Greece,  146 

Gregorius XIII  (Cardinal  Ugo  Bon- 
compagni),  21,  22,  39,  41,  54, 
81,  200,  261 

Attitude     towards  Felice 

Peretti,  42 
Built  parts  of  Vatican,  75 
Calendar  and  observatory,  76 
Campanile,  259 
Cut  down  woods,  220 
Emblem  on  Quirinal,  101 
Horsemanship,  49 
Japanese  and  Muscovite  Mis- 
sions to,  92 
Via  Flaminia,  266 
Gregorius,  "  Lives  of  the  Popes," 
35 

Grill-room,  6 

Grimaldi  MS.,  210 
MS.  Fontana,  230 
on  ball  from  obelisk,  186 
on  cross  on  dome  of  St.  Peter's, 
216 

on  mosaics  on  dome  of  St. 

Peter's,  223 
on  transformation  of  old  St. 
Peter's,  215 
Grottammare  (Cupra),  37.,  38 
Guerra,  Giovanni,  257 
Guide-books,  184 

H 

Hadrian  VI,  tombstone,  8 
Handel,  131 

Heemskert  on  Dioscuri,  258 
Henry  VIII,  book  against  Luther 

in  Vatican,  126 
Herodotus,  85 


I  History,  blank  pages  in,  203 
Homer,  birthplace,  37 
Hospital   for  beggars,  53,  116, 
171 

Household  removals,  papal,  203 
Houses,  182 

of  Cola  di  Rienzo — u  house  of 
Pilatus,"  186 
Hiibner,  Baron  de — 

Biography  of  Sixtus  V,  36, 
204 

on  column  of  Marcus  Aure- 

lius,  268 
on  medical  prescriptions,  103 
on  Roman  palaces  and 

houses,  182 
quoted — walk  through  Rome, 

175 

Hiilsen,  Itinerarium  Einsidlense, 
236 

Humbert,  King,  catafalque,  227 
Hunting,  120,  121,  122 
Hunting-traps,  121 

I 

Ignatius  of  Loyola,  40 
Innocentius  XII,  coat  of  arms,  30 
Inscriptions,  31,  32 

(See  also  names  of  buildings) 
Italians  proud  of  their  fountains, 

17 

Italy,  industrial  resources,  152 
Italy,  opportunities  of  learning  in, 
28 

J 

Janiculus,  15 
Japanese  princes,  92 
Johnson,  Dr.,  6 
Joyeuse,  Cardinal,  60 
Julius  II,  68,  77,  185,  215 

Coat  of  arms,  30 
Julius  III,  195 


INDEX 


287 


L 

u  Lafrery-Duperac/'  map,  197  ; 

print,  "258 
Lanciani,  Professor,  236 

History   of  Excavations  in 

Rome,  180 
Itinerarium  Einsidlense,  185 
Storia  degli  Scavi,  179 
Landini,  Taddeo,  "  Fontana  delle 

Tartarughe,"  262 
Landscape  painting,  86 
Lante(Bagnaja),Villa,  84,  86, 188, 
195,  196 

Map  of  Rome,  85 
Waterworks,  196 
Laocoon,  233 
Lapini,  Agostino,  170 
Lateran  Palace,  79,  91,  124,  202, 
206,  208,  213 

Armorial  bearings,  30 
As  a  residence,  100,  207 
Frescoes,  72 
Inscriptions,  9 
Leo  IV,  245,  246 
Leo  X,  21,  65,  121,  122,  190, 
261 

Leo  XIII,  37,  75 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  131,  132 

Lepanto,  battle  of,  47 

Leti,  Gregorius,  inventions  and 

calumnies,  35 
Liber  Pontificalis ,  236 
Libraries,  Roman,  204.    See  also 

Vatican 

Lightning  on  dome  of  St.  Peter's, 
217,  221 

Ligorio,  Pirro,  marble  inscrip- 
tions, 234 

Lime  quarries,  69 

Lions  in  Rome,  191 

Lipsius,  Justus,  276 

"  Loggia,"  183,  189 

Loggie  of  Raphael,  paintings,  84, 
121 

Loreto,  193 


Lucca,  146 
Lunghi,  Martino,  37 

M 

Madama  Villa,  179 

Paintings,  84 
Maderna,  Carlo,  papal  architect, 
229,  231 

Magliana  Castle,  hunting  parties, 
121 

Majolica  jars,  6 

Mallio,  Lorenzo,  inscription  on 

house,  187 
Manutius,  82 

Maps  of  Rome,  70,  76,  85,  86,  98, 
99,  125,  180,  184,  255,  274,  275 
"Forma   Urbis,"  236,  244, 

247,  248 
Itinerarium  Ein.sidlensc,  236 
Mercator's  and  Ortelius',  275 
Marbles  moved  from   Rome  to 

Florence,  254 
Marcus  Aurelius'  horse,  bronze 

copy,  262 
Marforio,  on  satire  and  poetry,  46 
Marini,  on  doctors  of  the  Popes, 
112 

Marlianus,  on  Roman  antiquities, 

248,  249 
Marshes  {le  Marche),  111 
Martin  V,  65 
Martyrs'  lives,  272,  273 
Marucchi,  Professor,  277 
Mary  Stuart,  Queen,  47 
Massimo  Palace.    See  Mattei 
Massimo,  Prince,  91 

Book  on  Villa  Montalto,  93 
Mattei,  Cardinal,  106 
Mattei,  Ciriaco,  feast,  106 
Mattei    (Massimo,    Albano,  del 

Drago)  Palace,  25,  178,  179, 

239 

Entrance,  8 


288  SIXTINE  ROME 


Medici,  Cardinal  de',  46 
Medici,  Cardinal  Ferdinando  de', 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  122, 
144,  188,  195,  253 
Menagerie,  191 
Statue,  192 

Villa,  105,  187,  191  ;  trea- 
sures, 253 
Medici,  Francesco  de',  72 
Mercator,  map,  275 
Metella,  Cecilia,  tomb,  263 
Michaelis,  on  Roman  collections, 
257 

Michelangelo,  27,  215,  241,  269 
Moses,  29 

Plan  for  Santa  Maria  degli 

Angeli,  208 
Scenographer  of  Capitoline 

Hill,  259 
Titanic  forms,  97 
Milan,  145 

Minerva  Statue— "  Roma  Chris- 
tiana," 263 
Mirabilia  Urbis  Romce,  184 
Montaigne,  Michel  de,  55 

First  modern  tourist,  7 

on  Bagnaja,  196 

on  Desiosi  Company,  107 

on  his  travelling  library,  112 

on  women,  116 

Travels,  on  tomb  of  Nero, 
194 

Visits  Vatican  Library,  125 
Montalto,  30,  37,  124 
Montalto,   Cardinal  Alessandro, 
34,  36,  62,  66,  85,  88,  89,  106, 
107,  122,  195,  248 
Montalto,  family,  159 
Montalto,  Villa,  34,  39,  89,  91, 
92,  93,  100,  104,  179,  181,  208 
Cost  of,  171 
Destroyed,  251 
Pictures  of  Rome,  207 
Monte    Cassino,    decoration  in 
crypt,  209 


Monte  Cavallo,  Palace,  149,  256, 
257 

Montoise,  Louis  de,  Gallus  Roma 
hospes,  250 

Montorsoli,  Giovanni,  restora- 
tions, 241 

Monuments,  conversion  of  pagan 
into  Christian,  168,  263,  267 

Monuments  destroyed  under  Six- 
tus  V,  238,  240 

Monza  papyrus,  277 

Morillon,  Guy,  Bishop  of  Tour- 
nay,  274 

Mount  Athos  Monastery,  126 

Muretus,  Marcus  Antonius,  127, 
198 

Muscovite  Mission,  92 
Muziano,  269 

Landscape-painting,  172 
Mystery  plays,  186 

N 

Naples,  227,  228 

Naples,  Viceroy  of,  66,  96,  228, 

229 

Nardini :  Roma  Antica :  Memorie 

di  Flaminio  Vacca,  242 
Neri,  Filippo,  40 
Nero,  tomb  of,  187,  194 
Nero's  Circus,  124 
Niccolo  d' Arras,  49 
Nicolas  V,  21 

Nolhac,  de,  La  bibliotheque  de 
Fulvio  Orsini,  198 

O 

Obelisk  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore, 
264,266 

Obelisk  of  St.  Peter's,  94,  99, 
102, 133,  257,  263 

Account  of  raising,  142  seq.  ; 
literature  on,  165 


INDEX 


289 


Obelisk  of  St.  Peter's— 

Ball  from  top,  186 

Base,  163 

Cost  of,  171 

Cross  on,  168 

Model  for  others,  264 

Position,  169 

Story  of  saving,  164 
Obelisk    on    Circus  Maximus, 

Piazza  del  Popolo,  264,  265 
Obelisk  on  Lateran  Square,  264 
Obelisks  as  sundials,  72,  73 
Offices,  5 

Opera  in  fable  form,  108 
Orbaan,  J.  A.  F.,  Stradanus  te 

Florence,  121  n. 
Orsini,  Fulvio,  24,  83,  105,  198, 

248 

Edited  De  Triclinio,  272 
Orsini,  Paolo,  .57 

Orsini,  Paolo  Giordano,  Duke  of 

Bracciano,  122 
Ortaccia,  197 

Ortelius,   Abraham,   274 :  map, 
275 

Orti  Carpensi  collections,  254 
Orti  Estensi  collections,  254 
Orti  Farnesiani,  179,  180,  192 
Ostia,  fortress,  55 

P 

Pagan  monuments  sanctified,  168 
Paintings  in  country  houses,  84 
Palace,  Italian  sixteenth-century, 

84.    See  various  names 
Palace  of  J  ustice,  68 
Palestrina,  shops,  110 
Paliano,  Duchess  of,  159 
"  Palombara  "  Villa,  259 
Palmistry,  114 
Palo  Castle,  61, 192,  193 
Pansa,  83,  88,  126 
Pantheon,  222,  223 
Papa  Giulio  Villa.    See  Giulio 


"  Papessa  Giovanna,"  legend,  244, 
246 

Paruto,  Paolo,  on  buildings  in 

Rome,  176 
Pasquino,  satirical  works,  45,  46 
Paulus  III,  224,  261 
Paulus  IV,  Statue,  262 
Paulus  V,  Arch  used  as  gate,  15 
"Peperino"  from  Septizonium, 

238,  239 

Peretti,  Alessandro.    See  Mont- 
alto,  Cardinal  Alessandro 

Peretti,  Camilla,  58,  106,  112,  276 

Peretti,  Felice.    See  Sixtus  V 

Peretti  family,  37,  38 

Peretti,   Michele,    Governor  of 
Rome,  58,  88,  90 

Persia,  war  witli  Turkey,  57 

Philip  II  of  Spain,  catafalque,  230 

Physiognomy,  275 

Piazzo  del  Popolo  fresco,  120 

Pinardi,  Ugo,  map  of  Rome,  180 

Pincio,  21 

Piranesi,  80 

Plates,  131,  132 

Pisa,  107 

Pisany,  Marquis,  188,  197 
Pius  V  (Cardinal  Ghisleri),  21,  39, 
40,  195,  200 
Biography,  43 
Medals  on  obelisk,  163 
Pius  VI,  66 
Pius  IX,  42 

Tomb  in  San  Lorenzo  Fuori, 
205,  209 
Pius  X,  75,  209,  211 
Plantin,  Bible  in  4  languages,  82 
Platina,  care  of  biblioteca,  235 
Plinius,  85 

on  Obelisk,  162 
Plutarch  MS.  in  Vatican,  12*; 
Poggio  Cajano,  121 
Poleni,  Marchese,  221  ;  ascending 

dome  of  St.  Peter's,  218,  219 
Pompeii,  110 


u 


290 


STXTINE  ROME 


Ponti— 

Diana,  107 
Nolle,  69 

Quattro  Capi,  118,  119 
Sant'  Angelo,  executions  on, 
119 

Sisto,  117,  234 
Pontine  Marshes,  draining,  65, 
66,  67 

Pontius    Pilatus,    epitaph  with 

name  of,  274 
Porta— 

Battista,  275 

Furba,  10  seq.,  27,  279 

Described,  11 
Inscriptions,  17,  18,  26 
Giacomo  della,  148, 150, 170, 
208,  214,  215 
Bas-relief,  24 
Maggiore,  12 

San  Lorenzo,  inscriptions,  18, 
19 

Porto,  Antonio,  62 
Pratolino,  196 
Printing-presses,  82,  275 
Priscilla  Cemetery,  277 

Q 

Quarantine,  112 

Quirinal  Hill,  197 

Quirinal  Palace  (Villa  d'Este), 

70,  71,  100,  101,  104,  196, 

197,  202,  208 
cost  of,  171,  202 
Quirinal  Museum,  255 
Quirinal  Square,  177,  255 

R 

Rabelais  in  Rome,  249 
Rainaldi,  Federigo,  89 
Ranke  :  Die  Rbmischen  Pupste,  35 
on  Fontano  raising  obelisk, 
169 

Raphael,  early  death  and  works, 
131 


Raphael,  epitaph,  36 
Renaissance,  81,  235 

Awakened  a  desire  for  learn- 
ing, 85 
Restoration,  33 

Restoration  and  Sculpture,  241 
Restoration  of  old  churches,  208, 

209  seq. 
Rhodes,  146 

Riario  Palazzo,  "  Vigna,"  180 
Ricci,  Corrado,  on  plans  for  Santa 

Maria  degli  Angeli,  208 
Riviera,  Egidio  della  (Van  den 

Vliete),  49  and  n.,  257 
Rocca,  83,  88 

Book  on  Vatican  Library,  137 
Rocchi,  Major,  71 

Atlases,  184 
Rodocanacchi,  Le  Capitole  Romain 

Antique  et  Moderne,  259 
Roman,  what  it  is,  79 
Romano,  Giulio,  269 
Romans,  love  for  Coliseum,  226 
Rome — 

Antiquities,  2  seq. 
Connections  between  streets, 
176,  178.  See  also  names  of 
streets 

Entrance   from   Siena  and 
Viterbo,  27 

Evening  wanderings  in,  3  seq. 

Growth  of,  179  seq. 

Improvements  in,  27,  67  seq. 

Plan  of,  173, 174 

Walk  through  (Hubner),  175 
Ronciglione,  152 
Roscius,  Janus  Victorius,  Pina- 

cotheca,  199  seq. 
Rossi,  Giambattista  de,  131,  132, 
209,  236 

Classifying  inscriptions,  9 

Maps  of  Rome,  70,  184 

Roma  Sotterranea,  273 
Rubens,  drawings,  134 


INDEX 


291 


s 

Sabina,  Mt.,  12 
Sacchetti,  Palazzo,  183 
Sacconi,  Catafalque  to  King  Hum- 
bert, 227 

Monument  for  Victor  Eman- 
uel II,  227 
Salamanca,  201 
San  :  Santa  :  Santi — 

Adriano  restored,  270 
Agnese,  bronze  doors,  268 
Andria  della  Valle,  34 
Angelo,  Castel,  69,  118 
Paintings,  84 
Safe  in,  125,  139 
Anna  dei  Lombardi,  Naples, 
231 

Apostoli,  40,  181 
Carlo  Borromeo,  127 
Caterina  ai  Funari,  212 
Clemente,  80,  244,  245,  246 

Restored,  270 
Croce,  73 
Filippo  Nero,  127 
Fiore,  Count  of,  47 
Gallo,  Antonio  da,  model  of 

St.  Peter's,  215 
Gioaccbino,  209 
Giovanni,  79,  80 
Giovanni  Decollate,  244,  245 
Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini,  190 
Giovanni  e   Paolo,  excava- 
tions, 248 
Girolamo,  37,  48 
Girolamo  a  Ripetta,  212 
John  in  Lateran,  48,  73, 207. 
See  also  Lateran  Palace 
Care  of  "  goat  stream,"  265 
Lucia  in  Septizonio,  236,  237 
Maria  degli  Angeli,  73,  208 
Maria  dell'  Anima,  Hadrian 

VPs  tombstone,  8 
Maria  del  Fiore,  Florence, 
cupola,  222 


San  :  Santa  :  Santi — 

Maria  delle  Grazie,  excava- 
tions, 248 

Maria  m  Cosmedin,  209 

Maria  Maggiore — 

As  an  architectural  relic,  33 
Bells,  105 

"  Cappella  Paolina,"  32,76, 
97,  99 

Obelisk,  cost  of,  171,  172 
Representations  of,  97,  98, 
99 

Sixtine  Chapel.  See  that  title 
Maria  Sopra  Minerva,  92 
Paolo  Fuori,inner  decoration, 

210 
Peter's,  33 

Ancient  basilica,  94  ;  print 

of,  133 
"  Campanile,''  216 
Dome,  78,  193,  213 
Cross  on,  216 
Defies  elements,  222 
Lightning  on,  217,  221 
Significance,  94 
Time  taken  to  build,  222 
Museum  of  Fabric,  215 
Original  plan,  124 
Pietro  e  Marcelliuo,  excava- 
tions, iM7 
Pietro  in  Vincoli,  monastery, 
48 

Pudenziana  restored,  270 
Rocco,  obelisks,  266 
Sabina,"  Papal  Chapel,"  123, 
213 

Inscription,  123,  124 
Restored,  171,  270 
Severa  Monastery,  61 
Silvester  basilica,  277 
Sisto  Convent,  53,  54 
Spirito  in  Sassia,  212 
Stefano,  11 

Stefano   Rotondo,  frescoes, 
213 


292 


SIXTINE  ROME 


San  :  Santa  :  Santi — 

Susanna,  inscription  on  foun- 
tain near,  20 

Sangallo,  Antonio  di,  183 

Sangenesio,  Guido  Gualterio,  story 
of  journey  to  Civitavecchia,  60 

Sanitary  measures  against  epi- 
demics, 112 

Santacroce,  Cardinal,  112 

Sapienza  Palazzo,  198 

Savelli,  Orazio,  259 

Savelli,  Palazzo,  253 

Scientist,  collaboration  with  art- 
ist, 85 

Sebenico,  Nic,  135 

Seitz,  decorations  in  the  Vatican, 
205 

Septimus  Severus,   built  Septi- 

zonium,  236 
Septizonium — 

Account  of,  236  seq. 

Destruction  of,  238,  251 
Shooting,  120 
Shops,  shape  of,  110 
Sicily,  146 

Sirletus,   Cardinal  Librarian  of 
Vatican,  82,  89,  126 
Books  and  MSS.,  127 
Sixtine  Chapel,  16,  32,  33,  34, 
97,  240 
Cost  of,  171 
Decoration,  212,  213 
Original  basilica,  33 
Representation  of,  99 
See  also  Pius  V,  tomb  ;  Sixtus 
V,  tomb 
Sixtus  IV,  16,  21 

Buildings  and  reforms,  234, 
235 

Coat  of  arms,  30 
Founds  Capitoline  Museum, 
236 

Receiving  Platina,  235 
Sixtus  V  (Felice  Peretti),  22,  26, 
30,  200,  201 


Sixtus  V— 

Accounts  in  Vatican  Archives, 

90,  139 
Aqueduct,  plans  for,  15,  19 

seq. 

See  also  Acqua  Felice 
Aspect  of  his  buildings,  79 
At  Palo,  193 

Attitude  towards  Charles  V, 
40 

 Gregorius  and  Pius,  42 

 Turkey,  38,  47,  56 

"  Bandi,"  108,  113,  158 
Birthplace,  37 

Builds  dome  of  St.  Peter's, 

94,  143,  213 
Care  of  Vatican  Library,  83 

seq.,  128 
Characteristics,  39,  41,  44, 

45,  49,  58,  59,  62,  95,  100, 

102,  122,  139,  143,  149, 

167,  188 
Churches  rostored,  270 
Coat  of  arms,  30,  31,  32 
Death,  276 

Death  affecting  building,  223 
Decoration  of  churches,  212, 
213 

Developing  sea-power,  58 
Diet,  103 
Doctors,  111 

Draining  Pontine  marshes, 

65,  66,  67 
Early  life,  38 

Embassy  to  Shah  of  Persia, 
57 

Embassy  to  Spain,  41 
Emblem  on  Quirinal  and  on 

Vatican,  101 
Epitaph,  36,  41 
Favourite  horse,  93 
Hospital  for  beggars,  53,  116 

Cost  of,  171 
Improvements  in  Rome,  27 

67  seq.,  177  et  passim 


INDEX 


293 


Sixtus  V— 

Impressed  in  popular  memory, 
16 

Inscriptions,  15,  18,  26,  31, 

102,  123 
Inspecting  new  streets,  73 
Interest  in  archaeology,  248 
Montalto    Villa.    See  that 

title 

Monuments  destroyed,  236 
seq. 

Monuments  saved  from  demo- 
lition, 255  seq. 
Note  to  Fontana,  239 
Obelisk.    See  that  title. 
Pictures  of  Rome,  207 
Plans  for  Civitavecchia,  63,65 
Plans  for  Sixtine  Chapel,  34 
Plans  unexecuted,  224  seq. 
Politics,  166 
Portrait,  88,  91,  129 
Private  Library,  81, 122 
Safe,  125,  139 
Sermons,  40 
Sketch  of  career,  38  seq. 
Statue  in  Palazzo  di'  Con- 
servatory 261,  262 
Statue  on  Campidoglio,  269 
Stories  of,  16,  17,  35,  59,  60, 

93,  118 
Summer  in  Rome,  104 

Resorts,  208 
Tomb,  34,  42,  43,  44,  46  seq. 

Symbolism,  50 
Transforming  pagan  antiqui- 
ties, 263,  267 
Travels,  58,  60  seq.,  65 
Visits  Sixtine  Chapel,  43 
War    against  brigands,  50 
and  n. 

Work  in  Apostolic  Palaces, 
201 

Sora,  Duke  of,  dinner,  107 
Soracte,  Monte,  194 
Spada,  Palazzo,  187 


Statues — 

Legends  from,  246 
Of    Peter    and   Paul.  See 
Columns  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  and  Trajan 
Restoring  antique,  240 
To  living  Popes,  260,  261 
Stevenson,  on  Septizonium,  238 
Stevenson,    scheme    of  papal 

finances,  172 
Stradanus,  hunting-traps,  121 
Streets  in  Rome,  109,  110,  111, 
153, 182 

Changes  in  names,  235 
See  names  under  Via 
Street  signs,  185,  186,  187 
"Studiolo"  (cabinet),  67  and  n. 
Subiaco,  152 

Summer  arrangements,  104 
Swanevelt,  engravings,  182 

T 

Tasso,  Torquato,  46 

Verses  on  obelisk,  166 

Tempesti,  Vita  di  Sisto  Quinto,  262 

Terni,  193 

Terracina,  06,  67 

Wood  from,  154 

Theatre  of  Marcellus,  253 

Thorwaldsen,  52 

Tiber  Island,  119 

Tiber,  River,  3,  69 

Tivoli,  18,  70 
Quarries,  70 

Tobacco  introduced   into  Italy, 
112 

Tolfa,  la,  Mountains,  63 
Tomassetti,   on   "  Papessa  Gio- 

vanna/'  247 
Tomassetti,  on  silk-workers,  226 
Topography,  232 
Tor  di  Conti,  187 
Toulouse,  201 
Tournaments,  123 


294 


SIXTINE  ROME 


Towers  in  Rome,  119 

"Tramontana,"  1,  221 

Trastevere,  houses,  182 

Trent,  Council  of,  88 

Trinita  de'  Monti,  73 

"Trink,"  use  of  word,  64 

"Trophies  of  Marius,"  255,  258 
Inscription,  262 

Turkey,  Sixtus  V's  attitude  to- 
wards, 38,  47,  56 

Tuscan  art  and  Popes,  189 

Tuscany,  Grand  Duke  of,  shoot- 
ing lodge,  121,  122 

Typography,  invention  of,  136 

U 

Uffizi  Palace,  Florence,  68 
Urbanus  VII,  101,  104,  206 
Urbanus  VIII,  10,  76,  98,  261 
Urbino,  65 

Urbino,  Duke  of,  horse,  94 
Urbino  library.  See  under  Vatican 
Library 

Urlichs,  Topographia  Urbis  Romce, 
184 

V 

Vacca,  Flaminio — 

Armorial  bearings  and  bas- 
relief,  24 
"  Castrum  Aquae,"  248 
Epitaph,  242 

on   destruction   of  ancient 
monuments,  240,  242 

Memorie,  242,  244,  247,  254 
on  Dioscuri,  257,  258,  273, 
274 

Valentini  Palazzo  (Provinciale), 
183 

Valsoldo,  Giovanni  Antonio,  49 
Vanvitelli,  ascending  dome  of  St. 

Peter's,  218 
Vasari,  a  representative  Italian, 

130 

Lives  of  Painters  and  Archi- 
tects, 130,  132 


Vasari — 

on  frescoes  of  Caprarola,  87 
on  restoration  and  sculpture, 
241 

Vatican  Library,  39,  78,  80  seq. 
Archives,  Introitus  et  Eocitus, 

206,  223,  256 
Codice    Barberiniano  XXX 

89,  185,  187 
Collection  of  Queen  Christina 

of  Sweden,  129 
Barberini  MS.,  40,  57,  129, 

252 

Expression  of  the  epoch  of 

history,  80 
Grimaldi  MS.,  210.    See  also 

title 

MS.  books  of  Cancellieri,  204 
MSS.,  125 

Mediaeval  aspect,  126 
Ornamentation,  83,  87  seq. 

Symbols,  95 
Ottoboniana,  128 
Palatina,  128 
Pictures  of  Rome,  207 
Portraits,  26,  129 
Reference,  decoration  of,  205 
Urbino,  128,  257 
Vatican  Palace,  18 

Borgia  apartments,  75,  202 
Cappella  Sistina.  See  Sixtine 

Chapel 

Cortile  del  Belvedere,  102, 202 
Cortile  di  San  Damaso,  102, 
205 

Cost  of,  71,  206 
Courtyard  of  Bramante,  202 
Entrances  and  passage-ways, 
77 

Finished  under  Clemens  VIII, 
206 

Galleria  delle  Carte  Geogra- 
fiche,  75,  86,  98,  187,  202, 
276 

Gregorian  Chapel,  100 


INDEX 


295 


Vatican  Palace — 

History  intricate,  202 

Library.    See  that  title 

Loggie,  extension  of,  202,  206 

Loggie  frescoes,  182 

Museum,  78 

Observatory,  76 

Staircases,  78,  100 
Vecchietti,  Giovanni  Battista,  57 
Vehicles,  introduction  of,  8 
Venetian  Ambassadors — reports, 

175 
Venice,  145 

Frari  Monastery,  41 
Venuti,  on  cross  on  obelisk,  168 
Verocchio,  restoring  statue,  241 
Via- 

Alessandrina  (Borgo  Nuovo), 

235 

Appia,  10,  65,  66 
Aurelia,  60 
Aurelia  Antica,  15 
Capodiferro,  253 
Cassia,  254 
dei  Condotti,  20,  73 
del  Consolato,  190 
de'  Coronari,  176 
Flaminia,  61),  193,  265,  266 
Giulia,  174 ;  Palace  of  Justice, 
68 

Labicana,  14 

Latina,  10  ;  tombs,  11 

del  Lavatore,  20 

Leonina  (Ripetta),  235 

Merulana,  178 

Nazionale,  252 

del  Nazzareno,  21 

Panisperna,  178,  182  ;  ex- 
cavations, 248 

Paolina  (del  Babuino),  235 

del  Quirinale,  70,  71 

di  San  Gregorio,  excavations, 
248 

Salaria,  273,  274,  276 


Via— 

Sistina  (Borgo  Sant'  Angelo 
Via  Felice),  34,  177,  178, 
234,  235 

Excavations,  255 

Pavement,  111 

Tusculana,  13 
Victor  Emanuel  II,  monument, 

227 

Victor  Emanuel  III,  excavations 

in  Villa  Savoia,  278 
Villa  collections  on  Quirinal  Hill, 

254 

Villas  outside  city,  179 
Villas.    See  various  names 
Viterbo,  84,  182 
Viterbo,  Bishop  of,  195 
Vittorio  Emanuele,  monument, 
262 

Volaterranus,  234 
W 

W  arburg,  Dr.  A.,  on  Art  and 
Commerce  in  Florence  and 
Bruges,  190 

Watch-towers,  55,  56,  65 

Water  sports,  120 

Watermills,  119 

Waters,  purity  of,  17 

Wheels,  action  on  pavement,  152 

W  indows,  protection  of,  8 

Winghen,  PhilippUi  van,  274,  276 
letters  to  Antwerp,  275,  276 
MS.  and  maps,  276,  277 

Women,  115 

Z 

Zabaglia,  Maestro,  215 
Zagarolo,  58,  59 

Zanazzo,  Tradizioni  Popolari  Ro- 
man? ,  on  Sixtus  V's  buildings, 
118 

Zuccaro,  Taddeo,  frescoes,  87 


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